Lebanon has a unique form of parliamentary democracy in which the highest offices are reserved for certain ethnic groups. The constitution grants the people the right to change their government. However, from the mid-1970s until the parliamentary elections in 1992, civil war precluded the exercise of political rights. According to the constitution, direct elections must be held for the parliament every 4 years. The last parliament election was in 2000. The National Assembly, in turn, elects a President every 6 years to a single term. The President is not eligible for re-election. The last presidential election was in 1998. The president and parliament choose the Prime Minister. Political parties may be formed; most are based on sectarian interests. The greater part of the country has been living under Syrian occupation since the civil war.
Since the emergence of the post-1943 state, national policy has been determined largely by a relatively restricted group of traditional regional and sectarian leaders. The 1943 National Pact, an unwritten agreement that established the political foundations of modern Lebanon, allocated political power on an essentially confessional system based on the 1932 census. Seats in parliament were divided on a 6-to-5 ratio of Christians to Muslims, until 1990 when the ratio changed to half and half. Positions in the government bureaucracy are allocated on a similar basis. The pact also allocated public offices along religious lines, with the top three positions in the ruling "troika" distributed as follows:
Efforts to alter or abolish the confessional system of allocating power have been at the center of Lebanese politics for decades. Those religious groups most favored by the 1943 formula sought to preserve it, while those who saw themselves at a disadvantage sought either to revise it after updating key demographic data or to abolish it entirely. Nonetheless, many of the provisions of the national pact were codified in the 1989 Ta'if Agreement, perpetuating sectarianism as a key element of Lebanese political life.
Although moderated somewhat under Ta'if, the Constitution gives the President a strong and influential position. The President has the authority to promulgate laws passed by the National Assembly, to issue supplementary regulations to ensure the execution of laws, and to negotiate and ratify treaties.
The National Assembly is elected by adult suffrage (majority age for election is 21) based on a system of proportional representation for the various confessional groups. Most deputies do not represent political parties as they are known in the West, and rarely form Western-style groups in the assembly. Political blocs are usually based on confessional and local interests or on personal/family allegiance rather than on political affinities.
The parliament traditionally has played a significant role in financial affairs, since it has the responsibility for levying taxes and passing the budget. It also exercises political control over the cabinet through formal questioning of ministers on policy issues and by requesting a confidence debate.
Lebanon's judicial system is based on the Napoleonic Code. Juries are not used in trials. The Lebanese court system has three levels--courts of first instance, courts of appeal, and the court of cassation. There also is a system of religious courts having jurisdiction over personal status matters within their own communities, e.g., rules on such matters as marriage, divorce, and inheritance.
Lebanese political institutions often play a secondary role to highly confessionalized personality-based politics. Powerful families also still play an independent role in mobilizing votes for both local and parliamentary elections. Nonetheless, a lively panoply of domestic political parties, some even predating independence, exists. The largest are all confessional based. The Kataeb Party, also known as the Phalange Party, the National Bloc , National Liberal Party, Lebanese Forces (now outlawed), the Free Patriotic Movement and the Guardians of the Cedars (now outlawed) are the parties with the largest popular following among Christians. Amal and Hizballah are the main rivals for the organized Shi'a vote, and the PSP (Progressive Socialist Party) is the leading Druze party. While Shi'a and Druze parties command fierce loyalty to their leaderships, there is more factional infighting among many of the Christian parties. Sunni parties have not been the standard vehicle for launching political candidates, and tend to focus across Lebanon's borders on issues that are important to the community at large. Lebanon's Sunni parties include the Independent Nasserite Movement (Lebanon) (INM), the Tawhid (Lebanon) , and Ahbash (Lebanon) . In addition to domestic parties, there are branches of pan-Arab secular parties (Ba'ath parties, socialist and communist parties) that were active in the 1960s and throughout the period of civil war.
There are differences both between and among Muslim and Christian parties regarding the role of religion in state affairs. There is a very high degree of political activism among religious leaders across the sectarian spectrum. The interplay for position and power among the religious, political, and party leaders and groups produces a political tapestry of extraordinary complexity.
In the past, the system worked to produce a viable democracy. Events over the last decade and long-term demographic trends, however, have upset the delicate Muslim-Christian-Druze balance and resulted in greater segregation across the social spectrum. Whether in political parties, places of residence, schools, media outlets, even workplaces, there is a lack of regular interaction across sectarian lines to facilitate the exchange of views and promote understanding. All factions have called for a reform of the political system.
Some Christians favor political and administrative decentralization of the government, with separate Muslim and Christian sectors operating within the framework of a confederation. Muslims, for the most part, prefer a unified, central government with an enhanced share of power commensurate with their larger share of the population. The reforms of the Ta'if agreement moved in this direction but have not been fully realized.
Palestinian refugees, predominantly Sunni Muslims, whose numbers are estimated at between 160,000-225,000, are not active on the domestic political scene. Nonetheless, they constitute an important minority whose naturalization/ settlement in Lebanon is vigorously opposed by most Lebanese, who see them as a threat to Lebanon's delicate confessional balance.
On September 3, 2004, the Lebanese Parliament voted 96-29 to amend the constitution to allow President Émile Lahoud a second term in office. The move was supported by Syria, which maintains a large military presence in Lebanon.
Country name:
conventional long form: Lebanese Republic
conventional short form: Lebanon
local long form: Al Jumhuriyah al Lubnaniyah (Arabic: الجمهوريّة البنانيّة)
local short form: Lubnan (Arabic: لبنان)
Data code: LE
Government type: republic
Capital: Beirut (Arabic: بيروت)
Administrative divisions: 6 governorates (mohafazat, singular - mohafazah); Beirut, Mount Lebanon, North Lebanon , Beqaa, South Lebanon, Nabatyeh
Independence: 22 November 1943 (from League of Nations mandate under French administration)
National holiday: Independence Day, 22 November (1943)
Constitution: 23 May 1926, amended a number of times
Legal system: mixture of Ottoman law, canon law, Napoleonic code, and civil law; no judicial review of legislative acts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Suffrage: 21 years of age
Executive branch:
chief of state: President Émile Lahoud (since 24 November 1998)
head of government: vacant Prime Minister Najib Mikati (since 15 April 2005
cabinet: Cabinet chosen by the prime minister in consultation with the president and members of the National Assembly; the current Cabinet was formed in 2004
elections: President elected by the National Assembly for a six-year term; election last held 3 September 2004, to amend the constitution to extend President Lahoud's term for another three years; (next to be held 2007); Prime Minister and Deputy Prime Minister appointed by the President in consultation with the National Assembly; the president is required to be a Maronite Christian, the prime minister a Sunni Muslim, and the Speaker of the National Assembly a Shi'a Muslim.
election results: Émile Lahoud's term extended by constitutional amendment; National Assembly vote - 96 votes in favor, 29 against, 3 abstentions.
Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly or Majlis Alnuwab (Arabic) or Assemblée Nationale (French) (128 seats; members elected by popular vote on the basis of sectarian proportional representation (Maronites - 34, Sunnis - 27, Shiites - 27, Greek Orthodox - 14, Greek Catholics - 8, Druzes - 8, Armenian Orthodox - 5, Alawis - 2, Armenian Catholics - 1, Protestants - 1, Christian Minorities - 1) to serve four-year terms)
elections: last held 2000
election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NA (one-half Christian and one-half Muslim)
Judicial branch: four Courts of Cassation (three courts for civil and commercial cases and one court for criminal cases); Constitutional Council (called for in Ta'if Accord) rules on constitutionality of laws; Supreme Council (hears charges against the president and prime minister as needed)
Political parties and leaders:
political party activity is organized along largely sectarian lines; numerous political groupings exist, consisting of individual political figures and followers motivated by religious, clan, and economic considerations.
International organization participation: ABEDA , ACCT, AFESD , AL, AMF, CCC, ESCWA, FAO, G-24 , G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OAS (observer), OIC, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNRWA, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO.
Flag description: three horizontal bands of red (top), white (double width), and red with a green and brown cedar tree centered in the white band
-
See also : Lebanon
Last updated: 10-17-2005 14:39:04
