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Categories: Homosexuality | LGBT | Sociology | Gender
Homosexuality
Homosexuality is a sexual orientation characterized by sexual desire or romantic love exclusively, or almost exclusively, for people who are identified as being of the same sex. (For an analysis of the difficulties involved in the issue of identification, see homosexuality and transgender and also heterosexuality and bisexuality).
People who are homosexual, particularly males, are also known as "gay"; homosexual females are also known as "lesbians" (see Etymology and usage, below).
The term homosexuality is also applied to sexual activity between members of the same sex, regardless of the sexual orientation of the participants.
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Etymology and usage
The first known appearance of the term homosexuality in print is found in an anonymous 1869 German pamphlet 143 des Preussischen Strafgesetzbuchs und seine Aufrechterhaltung als 152 des Entwurfs eines Strafgesetzbuchs für den Norddeutschen Bund ("Paragraph 143 of the Prussian Penal Code and Its Maintenance as Paragraph 152 of the Draft of a Penal Code for the North German Confederation") written by Karl Maria Kertbeny. This pamphlet advocated the repeal of Prussia's sodomy laws (Bullough et. al. ed. (1996)). Kertbeny had previously used the word in a private letter written in 1868 to Karl Heinrich Ulrichs. Kertbeny used Homosexualität in place of Ulrichs's Urningtum; Homosexualisten instead of Urninge, and Homosexualistinnen instead of Urninden. Poststructuralist theorist Michel Foucault (1980) cites "Westphal's famous article of 1870 on 'contrary sexual sensations', as the "date of birth" of the categorization of homosexuality. The term's first known use in English is in Charles Gilbert Chaddock 's translation of Richard von Krafft-Ebing's Psychopathia Sexualis, a study on deviant sexual practices. The term was popularized in the 1906 Harden-Eulenburg affair.
The word homosexual translates literally as "of the same sex," being a hybrid of the Greek prefix homo- meaning "same" (as distinguished from the Latin root homo meaning human) and the Latin root sex meaning "sex." Although some early writers used the adjective homosexual to refer to any single-gender context (such as the Roman Catholic clergy or an all-girls' school), today the term implies a sexual aspect. The term homosocial is now used to describe single-sex contexts that are not specifically sexual. Older terms for homosexuality, such as homophilia and inversion (in which a homosexual would be called a 'homophile' or an 'invert') have fallen into disuse.
The term homosexual can be used as a noun or adjective to describe same-sex oriented persons as well as their sexual attraction and behavior. However, some recommend that the terms homosexual and homosexuality be avoided lest their use cause confusion or arouse controversy. In particular the description of individuals as homosexual may be offensive, partially because of the negative clinical association of the word stemming from its use in describing same-sex attraction as a pathological state before homosexuality was removed from the American Psychiatric Association's list of mental disorders in 1973. The use of the word homosexual in describing individuals and same-sex relationships may also be inaccurate.
Likewise, the use of homosexuality to describe sexual behavior between people of the same sex can be seen as insulting and may be inaccurate. Same-sex oriented people seldom apply these terms to themselves, and public officials and agencies often avoid them. For instance, the Safe Schools Coalition of Washington's Glossary for school employees advises that gay is the "preferred synonym for homosexual," and goes on to advise avoiding the term homosexual as it is "clinical, distancing and archaic":
- Sometimes appropriate in referring to behavior (although same-sex is the preferred adjective). When referring to people, as opposed to behavior, 'homosexual' is considered derogatory and the terms 'gay' and 'lesbian' are preferred, at least in the Northwest.
The Guardian Style Guide, Newswatch Diversity Style Guide, and the Committee on Lesbian and Gay Concern of the American Psychological Association's Avoiding Heterosexual Bias in Language all agree that "gay" is the preferred term.
Western people who regard themselves as having a same-gender sexual orientation tend to prefer the terms gay and lesbian; the latter term (noun or adjective) refers specifically to women. The term gay can apply to both men and women, but it is often used only for males (hence the expression gays and lesbians or the often-preferred gay men and lesbians) and its inclusive use is common but not standard. Other terms include same-gender-loving, and same-sex-oriented. Derogatory terms include fag or faggot, which generally refer to gay men; queer, generally inclusive of anyone who is not exclusively heterosexual; homo, short for homosexual); and dyke, referring to lesbians. Such terms, however, are sometimes used in a positive way among gay persons (particularly "queer" and "dyke"). Using the term 'gay' as a noun can be considered offensive despite its acceptance as an adjective, i.e., 'a gay man' is preferred over 'a gay'.
Which terms are acceptable and which are offensive varies widely with location and culture, and the connotations of the words gay and lesbian are also culturally dependent. For instance, among some sectors of African-American gay sub-culture, same-gender sexual behavior is sometimes viewed as solely for physical pleasure. Men on the down-low (DL) may engage in regular (although often covert) sex acts with other men while pursuing sexual and romantic relationships with women who are not told of it. These men often regard gay as a term that applies to stereotypically flamboyant and effeminate men of White ancestry, a group from which some feel no affinity (q.v., gay in vernacular usage). Some experts have suggested that this DL subculture may have come about because of stronger stigmas against same-sex behavior in African-American communities, as well as greater dependence on family networks (who may be homophobic) for support. This DL behaviour may serve as a cover of secrecy for homosexual men who would find it difficult to come out.
Other countries have created their own terms. In China, an emperor Han Aidi (BC27-BC1) was one of the most famous gay people in old days. The legend told that he cut his sleeve when his male lover slept on it, and knifed his peach to him, and therefore "Cutting Sleeve" (斷袖) and "Knifing a peach" (分桃) became the implicit synonyms of gay. Other terms for gay include Male trend(男風), Allied brothers(香火兄弟), Masculine-dragon preference(龍陽癖). The modern term of gay, Tongzhi(同志; comrade), was first adopted by researchers in Hong Kong Gender Studies. Though it's exactly the same wording as the Chinese communist translation for "comrade," and some confusion may result, this meaning has became highly popular in China, Taiwan and other chinese speaking communities. For lesbian, the term, 'Female Comrade,' (女同志; Nu Tongzhi) is used.
Some other cultures have adapted English terms for their own purposes. In Japan, for example, use of the word "gay" is fairly recent. In recent history the more descriptive dōseiaisha (同性愛者, literally same-sex-loving person) was the only term available. Prior to that a variety of obscure historical terms largely influenced by classical Chinese literature were employed. More recently the contraction "homo" was used; somewhat confusingly this term was used both positively and pejoratively. Nowadays the terms gei (ゲイ, a transliteration of gay) and bian or rezubian (ビアン、レズビアン, transliterations of lesbian) are the most common in the gay community, while pejorative terms like okama (a word of obscure origin literally meaning a cooking pot) are sometimes used.
Incidence and prevalence of homosexuality
Estimates of the prevalence of homosexuality vary considerably, and are complicated by differing or even ambigous definitions of homosexuality. Estimates range from 1%-10%. See: Prevalence of homosexuality.
Homosexuality as one end of a bisexual continuum
Some people who are in general heterosexual may have mild or occasional interest in members of their own sex. They are often referred to as bi-curious. Conversely, many people who identify themselves as homosexual, or who might prefer homosexual activities or relationships, have engaged in heterosexual activities or even have long-term heterosexual relationships. This practice can sometimes be an aspect of being in the closet, or may be described as bi-curious or bisexual behaviour, but what is clear is that a person's sexuality cannot always be strictly defined.
Some studies, notably Sexual Behavior in the Human Male and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953) by Alfred Kinsey, point out that when asked to rate themselves on a continuum from completely heterosexual to completely homosexual, and when the individual's behavior as well as their identity is analyzed, the majority of people appear to be at least somewhat bisexual. During their lives most people have some attraction to both sexes, although usually one sex is preferred. Kinsey and his followers therefore consider only a minority (5-10%) to be fully or exclusively heterosexual or homosexual. Conversely, only an even smaller minority can be considered "fully" bisexual, if that term is defined as having no preference for one sex over another. Some later studies have suggested that Kinsey's studies exaggerate the occurrence of not only bisexuality, but homosexuality as a whole in the population at large, but his idea of a sexuality continuum still enjoys wide acceptance.
Sexual activity with a person of the same sex, in and of itself, does not necessarily demonstrate homosexual orientation, but is considered homosexual behavior. Not all who are attracted to or have sexual relationships with members of the same sex identify themselves as homosexual or even bisexual. Some people frequently have sex with members of the same sex yet still see themselves as heterosexual. It is important therefore to distinguish between homosexual behavior, homosexual attraction, and homosexual identity, which need not coincide. For example, people in prison, the military, or other sex-segregated environments may engage in situational homosexual behavior despite being heterosexual outside these environments. In addition, some people engage in homosexual behaviors for reasons other than desire. One example is male prostitutes (often called hustlers) who earn money by having sex with other men: while some hustlers are homosexual themselves, a significant number are not.
Homosexual behavior in animals
Main article: Homosexuality in animals
Such behavior appears to be fairly common amongst birds and mammals such as apes and giraffes. Some believe that this behavior has its origin in male social organization and social dominance, similar to that in prison sexuality.
- However, homosexual behavior can be found amongst the bonobo, which is a fully bisexual species.
- The black swans of Australia will also form sexually active male-male mated pairs and steal nests or form temporary threesomes with females to obtain eggs.
- A March 2004 study states that homosexuality in male sheep, which is thought to be somewhat analogous to that in humans, is related to a region in their brain which is called the "ovine sexually dimorphic nucleus".
Theories on homosexuality and homosexual behavior
Once homosexual desire or behavior has been singled out for attention, and especially negative attention, the question naturally arises: What makes people this way? The causes of sexual orientation are currently under investigation. The general understanding that seems to be emerging is that rather than a single cause being involved, there is instead a symphony of factors that act over a long time to determine each individual's sexual orientation. Nurture, nature, or some combination of the two are often thought to determine human sexual behavior.
Various groups differ on the definition of homosexuality and theories on the origin of sexual orientation. Some see it as innate, immutable and deterministic. Others see it as a function of environment or as something that can be embraced or rejected. Others still (a subset of this latter group) see homosexuality and bisexuality as disfunctions to be corrected.
Nature
One theory is that sexual orientation is determined genetically.
This leads to the question of how homosexual behaviour can be replicated, given that homosexual behaviour does not result in reproduction. There are a number of theoretical possibilities that would make genetic reproduction possible.
- Social factors could bias those with a genetic tendency to homosexuality towards heterosexual behaviour. This theory goes on to predict that homosexuality will be less common in the future because, as we enter the information age, homosexuality will become more widely known and accepted, and therefore individuals with homosexual genes will feel less inclined to behave heterosexually and will thus reproduce less frequently. However, clearly if social factors can induce those with a genetic tendency to exhibit heterosexual behaviour then there could be social factors that cause homosexual behaviour, reducing the viability of the idea of a genetic basis.
- "Gay genes" - genetic factors leading to homosexual behaviour -could be beneficial to close relatives of an individual who shows genetic predisposition to homosexuality. For instance, the recessive gene that causes life-threatening sickle-cell anaemia gives some resistance to malaria. Similarly the presence of a genetic character that can cause homosexuality might in other circumstances increase fertility.
Prenatal hormones have been indicated both in Simon LeVay's study of the anterior hypothalamus in cadavers with homosexual contraction of AIDS as cause of death and Marc Breedloves study of birth order and finger length ratios in living individuals. LeVay's study suggests that homosexual men are feminized, Breedlove's study suggests that both homosexual men and homosexual women are masculinized.
Nurture (Cultural)
Some scholars in Queer studies, and most famously the French philosopher Michel Foucault (though some have argued that his opinions on this issue have been distorted by later scholars), attack the notion that sexual identities such as 'homosexuality', 'heterosexuality' or 'bisexuality' have any objective existence, viewing them instead as social constructions. (See Queer theory.) A frequent argument used is that homosexuality prior to the modern period differed from modern homosexuality (age-, gender- or class-structured rather than the more egalitarian form seen today). Critics argue that, although homosexuality in different periods has had different features, the underlying phenomenon has always existed and is not a recent invention of our society or that, while the particular manifestations of homosexuality may highly depend on social factors, its facticity remains constant.
It is conjectured by some, usually those outside of professional medical or research communities that Imitation, a major mechanism of cultural transmission, may account for some homosexual behavior. Proponents of the idea suggest that as representations of homosexuality are presented through television and other mass media, and as society becomes more tolerant of public affection between gay couples, homosexuality may have a greater chance of being imitated or the exploration of homosexual tendencies which have been repressed in the past may become more viable. This idea is generally rejected by mainstream researchers in the field due to the fact that it conflicts with most studies done to date which indicate the incidence of homosexual identity remains surprisingly constant across history and cultures.
Nurture (Early Childhood environment)
Daryl Bem, a social psychologist who works at Cornell University, has theorized that the influence of biological factors on sexual orientation may be mediated by experiences in childhood. A child's temperament predisposes the child to prefer certain activities over others. Because of their temperament, which is influenced by biological variables such as genetic factors, some children will be attracted to activities that are commonly enjoyed by other children of the same gender. Others will prefer activities that are typical of the other gender. This will make a gender conforming child feel different from opposite-gender children. Gender nonconforming children will feel different from children of their own gender however. According to Bem, this feeling of difference will evoke physiological arousal when the child is near members of the gender which it considers as being 'different'. Bem theorizes that this physiological arousal will later be transformed into sexual arousal: children will become sexually attracted to the gender which they see as different ('exotic'). This theory is known as Exotic Becomes Erotic (EBE) theory.
Society, religion, and the law
Societal attitudes towards homosexuality have varied over the centuries, from complete rejection (termed homophobia by some groups) through covert acceptance, to complete normalisation, with most degrees in between.
The religious response to homosexuality varies. At the present time the teachings of the Abrahamic religions are being interpreted by many to view homosexuality a sin; Buddhism generally does not condemn it. See religion and homosexuality for a comprehensive discussion.
In some cultures, especially those influenced by fundamentalist interpretations of Abrahamic religions, homosexuality is considered a perversion and has been outlawed (see sodomy law, consensual crime); in some jurisdictions homosexual behaviour is a capital crime.
The relationship between the moral condemnation of homosexuality and its legal status is complicated. For instance, in England buggery was a crime under medieval canon law because it was banned by the Church. However, prosecutions for this offence died out. Homosexuality was formally banned by Parliament in the 19th century as one of a range of sexual offences alongside sex with under-age girls as part of a general moral outrage .
Persecution of homosexuals is common across cultures and ideologies. While it often claims religious justification, the experience of homosexuals in Nazi Germany is a recent egregious example of persecution by a racially, rather than religiously-based doctrine. The Nazis viewed homosexuality as a sign of eugenic moral weakness, rather than as a sin.
In pre-industrial western societies homosexuality was generally accepted by the lower classes and the upper class, less so among the bourgeoisie, though most professed to consider it immoral. However with the rise of urbanisation and the nuclear family homosexuality became less tolerated and even outlawed in some cases.
By the 19th Century most areas adopting the Code Napoleon (French-based civil law) had no specific ban on homosexuality, while many areas with British-based Common Law systems had anti-sodomy statutes and executed sodomites as late as the end of the 1800's.
Beginning in the 20th century, gay rights movements, as part of the broader civil rights movements, in concert with the development of the often activist academic treatment of sexuality in queer studies, have led to changes in social acceptance and in the media portrayal of homosexuality.
The legalization and legal equality of homosexual acts, together with legal status for same-sex marriage and non-gender-specific civil unions is one of the major goals of gay rights activism.
In recent years a number of jurisdictions had relaxed or eliminated laws curbing homosexual behavior, including sodomy laws and laws preventing homosexuals from serving in armed forces.
In England and Wales, homosexuality was legalized in 1967, for consenting males aged over 21. Scotland followed in 1980, and Northern Ireland in 1982. The age of consent was lowered in 1994 from 21 to 18, and again in 2000 to 16 in mainland Britain and 17 in Northern Ireland. This last change gave parity with the heterosexual age of consent. However, not until 2003 were the earlier offences of buggery and gross indecency abolished so that gay sex was treated in the same way as heterosexual sex (previously it was illegal for gay sex to involve more than two people, or for anyone to watch).
In the United States, the trend culminated on June 26, 2003 with the landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision Lawrence v. Texas which overturned all sodomy laws in the United States.
In China, however, no specific law has targeted any gay behavior, but gay men are often convicted of being "rascals," which can lead to a jail sentence or to re-education.
History
Main article:History of homosexuality
Homosexuality as we currently know it, and its associated meanings, are products of 19th century psychology as well as the years of post-Stonewall gay liberation. Same-sex relationships through history have not been confined to a group of exclusively homosexual persons. While evidence on sexual activity in the distant past will always be difficult to gather and will be debatable, there are many clear examples from both history and legend of homosexual activity and affection in very different contexts from that of the modern gay person . In some cultures (e.g. ancient Greece) we can be sure that homosexuality was widespread.
Another paradigm would be the two-spirited people of the American continent or the arivanna (see hijra) of the Indian sub-continent in which partners of the same biological sex but different genders would be common. In North America the two-spirit person would play the submissive role, and would be sought after for sex or for marriage by the other male members of the tribe.
The earliest western documents concerning homosexual relationships come from Ancient Greece, where same-sex relationships were a societal norm, valued for their pedagogic benefits and as a means of population control. As Kenneth J. Dover points out, such relationships did not replace marriage between man and woman but occurred before and beside it. These relationships were typically pederastic, and it would be less common for a man to have a mature male mate (though some did, such as Alexander the Great, and Agathon in Plato's Symposium) ; Typically, a man would be the erastes (lover) to an adolescent eromenos (loved one). In this relationship, claims Dover, it was considered "improper" for the eromenos to feel desire, as that would not be masculine. Driven by desire and admiration, the erastes would devote himself unselfishly to providing all the education his eromenos required to thrive in society. In recent times, the research by Dover has been questioned in light of massive evidence of love poetry and paintings on ceramic vases, which suggest a more emotional connection than earlier researchers have liked to acknowledge.
Continuing the ancient tradition of male love in which Ganymede, cup-boy to the gods, symbolized the ideal boyfriend, Moslem writers in medieval Arab lands and in Persian wrote odes to the beautiful Christian wine boys who served them in the taverns and shared their beds at night. Among the Moslems the practice of pederasty was widespread, if not universal (as documented by Richard Burton, André Gide and many others), and has survived into modern times. It continues to surface despite efforts to keep it quiet, as it did after the American invasion of Afghanistan, when the same-sex love customs of Kandahar, in which adult men take on adolescent lovers, became widely known.
Perhaps another recent culture influenced by the ancients is pre-modern Italy. Cities in northern Italy, Florence and Venice in particular, were renowned for the widespread and blatant practice of same-sex love, engaged in by a majority of the male population and constructed along the classical pattern, as documented in recent studies by Michael Rocke and Guido Ruggiero.
In Asian, specifically China and Japan cultures, same-sex love has been a central feature of everyday life, in China since at least 600 BCE, and in Japan for over one thousand years. Such relationships were typically pederastic and marked by differences in age and social position. For more information see homosexuality in China and Homosexuality in Japan.
In many societies of Melanesia homosexuality is an integral part of the culture. In some tribes of Papua New Guinea, for example, it is considered a normal ritual responsibility for a boy to have a same sex relationship as a part of his ascent into manhood. Many Melanesian societies, however, have become less tolerant of homosexuality since the introduction of Christianity by European missionaries.
Constructions
The sexual orientation of pre-modern figures is a topic of intense controversy. It may be accepted, for example, that the sex lives of historical figures such as Alexander the Great, Plato, Hadrian, Virgil, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Christopher Marlowe included or were centred upon relationships with people of their own gender. Terms such as homosexual or bisexual might be applied to them in that sense. But many regard this as risking the anachronistic introduction of a modern social construction of sexuality that is foreign to their times. For example, their societies might have focused upon the sexual role one took in these encounters, namely active, passive, both, or neither, as a key social marker. This particular system of designation is currently the norm in many areas of Latin America.
It could be noted, on the other hand, that when evidence that a particular historical figure's sex life pointed exclusively toward an attraction to people of an opposite gender describing them as heterosexual rarely evokes such controversy. This tendency among Western historians, to view heterosexuality as an acceptable norm while regarding arguments that a particular historical figure may have been homosexual as controversial or requiring more evidence than a claim of opposite-sex attraction might warrant, is often attributed to homophobia on the part of historians and is referred to within queer studies as heteronormativity.
During the last few decades, in part due to their history of shared oppression, homosexuals in the West have developed a shared culture, although not all homosexuals participate in it, and many homosexual men and women specifically decline to do so. (See gay pride.)
Related articles
- Human sexual orientation:
- History, the law, religion and morality, contemporary attitudes:
External links
- Anchor
- The Androphile Project - The World History of Male Love
- Courage Apostolate
- DesiringGod.org - Articles and Sermons on Homosexuality by Dr. John Piper
- Encyclopedia of gay,lesbian, bisexual, transgender & queer culture
- Exodus International
- GLSEN: Gay, Lesbian, Straight Education Network
- Halsall's Gay History Page
- Human Rights Campaign
- International Lesbian and Gay Association
- Kinsey and the Homosexual Revolution - by Dr. Judith A. Reisman
- Lambda Legal Defense Fund
- NARTH.com - The National Association for Research and Therapy of Homosexuality
- New Direction for Life
- OHSU
- PeopleCanChange.com - "An alternative, healing response to unwanted sexual desires."
- Regeneration
- Sexual Minorities on Community College Campuses
- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Homosexuality
- The Breedlove Study
- The Sheep Study
- Understanding Male Homosexual Problems: An Introduction for Latter-day Saints (A Mormon view of male homosexuality)
References
- Christopher Bagley and Pierre Tremblay, (1998), "On the Prevalence of Homosexuality and Bisexuality, in a Random Community Survey of 750 Men Aged 18 to 27", Journal of Homosexuality, Volume 36, Number 2, pages 1-18.
- Lester G. Brown, Two Spirit People, 1997, Harrington Park Press, ISBN 1-56023-089-4
- Kenneth J. Dover, Greek Homosexuality, 1979, Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd., London, ISBN 0674362616 (o.p. hardcover), ISBN 0674362705 (pbk.).
- Bret Hinsch, Passions of the Cut Sleeve: The Male Homosexual Tradition in China, The University of California Press, 1990, ISBN 0-520-06720-7.
- Alfred C. Kinsey, Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, 1948, ISBN 0721654452 (o.p.), ISBN 0253334128 (reprint).
- Alfred C. Kinsey, Sexual Behavior in the Human Female, 1953, ISBN 0721654509 (o.p.), ISBN 0671786156 (o.p. pbk.), ISBN 025333411X (reprint).
- LeVay, S., Science, 1991, 253, 1034?1037.
- Rocke, Michael, (1996), Forbidden Friendships: Homosexuality and male Culture in Renaissance Florence, ISBN 0-91-512292-5
- Ruggiero, Guido, (1985), The Boundaries of Eros, ISBN 0-91-505696-5
- Smith, T.W. (1991). Adult sexual behavior in 1989: Number of partners, frequency of intercourse and risk of AIDS. Family Planning Perspectives 23(3), 102-107.
- Bullough et. al. (eds.) (1996). Handbook of Medieval Sexuality. Garland Publishing. ISBN 0815312873.
- Foucault, Michel (1990). The History of Sexuality vol. 1: An Introduction, p.43. Trans. Robert Hurley. New York: Vintage.
Categories: Homosexuality | LGBT | Sociology | Gender