Pre-Columbian Cuba
Cuba was first visited by Europeans when explorer Christopher Columbus landed on the island of Cuba for the first time on October 28, 1492. Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar led the Spanish invasion, conqueror, and became governor of Cuba for Spain. Cuba before 1492 was populated by two very distinct aborigine groups: Taíno and Siboney or pronounced Ciboney. These two groups were prehistoric cultures in a time period during which, humans created tools from stone. The Taíno were agriculturalist and the Ciboney were a self-sufficient society, although their evolution was not limited to fishing and hunting, farming and production of wooden structures. Taínos and Ciboney part took in similar customs and beliefs, one being the sacred ritual practiced using tobacco called cohaba known to American society as smoking. The Europeans who were educated from the Native Cubans took to nurture tobacco and consume it in the form of cigars. The Native Cuban Indian population, including the Ciboney and the Taíno, were forced in to reservations during the Spanish subdual of the Island of Cuba. Many Natives were placed on reservations. One famous reservation was known as Guanabacoa, today a suburb of Havana. Many Natives Cuban Indians died due to the brutality of Spanish conquistadores. And the diseases they brought with them, such as the measles and smallpox, which were previously unknown to Indians. Many of the Conquistadors intermarried with Native Cuban Indians. Their children were called mestizo, but the Native Cubans called them Guajiro, which translates to "one of us". Today, the descendants are maintaining their heritage.
Conquest of Cuba
Spanish Colonial Cuba
When the Spanish established sugar cane and tobacco as Cuba's primary products. As the native Indian population became mestizied and educated, field labor became shore. Slaves were imported from Native Florida and Bahama natives, and as that population became mixed as well, field labor was harder to acquire. African slaves were imported to work the plantations in order to replace the field labor. Slavery became especially important when Cuba's sugar plantations became important world producers. By the end of the 1800 century Slavery was abolished.
However, leading up to the abolition of slavery, Cuba saw great prosperity from their sugar trade. The Spanish had ordered regulations on trade with Cuba, which kept the island from becoming a dominant sugar producer. The Spanish were interested in keeping their trade routes, and slave trade routes protected. Nevertheless, Cuba's vast size and abundance of natural resources made it an ideal place for becoming a booming sugar producer. When Spain opened the Cuban trade ports, it quickly became a popular place. New technology allowed a much more effective and efficient means of producing sugar. They began to use water mills, enclosed furnaces, and steam engines to produce a higher quality of sugar at a much more efficient pace than the sugar being produced elsewhere in the Caribbean.
The quick boom in Cuba's sugar industry in the 1800's made it necessary for Cuba to improve its means of transportation. They needed safe and efficient ways to transport the sugar from the plantations to the ports, in order to maximize their return. Many new roads were built, and old roads were quickly repaired. Cuba even saw railroads pop up, which changed the way that sugar was transported. It was now possible for plantations all over this large island to have their sugar shipped quickly and easily. The prosperity seen from the boom in sugar production is a major reason that Cuba became predominantly Spanish. Many Spaniards immigrated to Cuba, calling it a place of refuge.
Sugar Plantations
Cuba failed to prosper before the 1760s due to Spanish trade regulations. Spain had set up a monopoly in the Caribbean and their primary objective was to protect this. They did not allow the islands to trade with any foreign ships. Spain was primarily interested in the Caribbean for its gold. The crown thought that if the colonies traded with other countries he would be losing gold without any direct benefit to himself. This slowed the growth of the Spanish Caribbean. This effect was particularly bad in Cuba because Spain kept a tight grasp on Cuba. It held great strategic importance in the Caribbean. As soon as Spain opened Cuba's ports up to foreign ships a great sugar boom began that lasted until the 1880s. The Island was perfect for growing sugar. It is dominated by rolling plains, with rich soil, and adequate rainfall. It is the only island big enough to build roads, and railroads on, and has the best ports in the area. By 1860 Cuba was devoted to growing sugar. The country had to import all other necessary goods. They were dependent on the United States who bought 82 percent of the sugar. Cubans resented the economic policy Spain implemented in Cuba, which was to help Spain and hurt Cuba. In 1820 Spain abolished slavering hurting Cuban economy even more because planters turned to buying more expensive illegal slaves. Most Cubans began to support annexation from Cuba to join as a slave state to the United States. This movement ended at the end of the American civil war. Cuba had no interest in abolishing slavery. After this Cuba began a revolution called the Ten Year War, which ended in Spain abolishing slavery in Cuba. The abolishment of slavery in Cuba slowly killed off the Sugar plantations.
Cuba's Struggle for Independence
Cuba was the last major Spanish colony to gain independence, following a 50-year struggle begun in 1850. Carlos Manuel de Céspedes led the first major uprising, the Ten Year War, which began on October 10, 1868 with the issuing of the Grito de Yara. Neither the Cuban rebels nor the Spanish government were able to defeat the other, and the war dragged on for ten years, hence its name. In 1878, the Spanish Captain General Arsenio Martínez-Campos Antón offered Cubans the Pact of Zanjón to end the war. It was signed on February 10, 1878 and it promised some reforms of the Spanish government in Cuba, including some elective institutions, and theoretically promised Cuban representation in the Spanish Cortes. Cuban Major General Antonio Maceo Grajales rejected the treaty on a meeting with Martinez Campos on March 15, 1878 at Maceo’s encampment in Baraguá. Eight days after this meeting, General Maceo circulated The Protest of Baraguá . He led his troops for a few more weeks against the Spanish. However, the treaty was acceptable to many of Cuba's elites, who had supported the rebellion but preferred reform to independence. On May 10, Maceo is forced into exile by an order of the President of the Republic of Cuba in Arms . The rebel government ratified the Spanish peace terms on May 21, officially ending the war. Along with the other reforms, an emancipation law was passed in 1880 and fully implemented in 1886. Race relations improved and massive numbers of Spaniards immigrated to Cuba, even as Cuba became more economically linked to the United States than to Spain.
These reforms did not dampen the Cuban spirit for independence. José Martí Pérez , Cuba's national hero, began the final push for independence in 1895. He is joined by many veterans of the Ten Year War including Generals Máximo Gómez and Antonio Maceo. On May 19, José Martí is killed in the Battle of Dos Ríos. In 1896, General Maceo is successful in taking the war to the westernmost provinces of Cuba, although he is killed on December 7 in the Battle of Punta Brava .
On February 15, 1898, the USS Maine sank in Havana Harbor due to an explosion of undetermined origin. It has been said that the explosion was accidental, and recent research seems to indicate so; but at the time, the American press blamed it squarely on the Spanish. This incident helped galvanize support in the United States to enter the conflict. Congress passed the Teller Amendment distancing the U.S. from any claims over Cuba and stating that its goal was an independent Cuba. (see: Spanish-American War). At the time of the U.S. intervention on the war (April 1898), the Cuban revolutionaries had fought the Spanish government troops to another stalemate, holding control of the eastern half of the island. Spain sent Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete commander of the Spanish Armada with a large number of reinforcements to fight the rebellion from the East. The US Navy blockaded the entrance of Santiago Bay where Admiral Cervera’s fleet was anchored. Cervera attempted an escape on July 3 beginning the Naval Battle of Santiago de Cuba . In a matter of hours, Cervera's fleet was destroyed, ensuring a swift end to the war. On October 1, Spain capitulated in the Treaty of Paris, yielding to the United States the territories of Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippine Islands.
Many (especially US) historians believe that a long, protracted stalemate as in the Ten Years' War was likely without US intervention; others (especially Cubans) prefer to characterize US intervention as an unnecessary mopping up operation in a war largely already won by the Cuban revolutionaries. Spain sent over one million men to Cuba, and only about 200,000 returned. The rest died in combat, succumbed to tropical diseases, or stayed in Cuba to avoid the widespread poverty in Spain.
The Platt Amendment and the U.S. Naval Base Guantanamo Bay
On May 20, 1902, the United States, restricted by the Teller Amendment, granted Cuba its independence, but retained the right to intervene to preserve Cuban independence and stability under the Platt Amendment. Tomás Estrada Palma was elected as the first President of Cuba. At the end of his term in 1905, he tried to cling to power and a liberal revolt ensued. The U.S. sent troops to end the revolt in 1906 and they remained until 1909
This Amendment also granted to the U.S. the right to establish naval bases on the island and, under its charter, the U.S. Naval Base Guantanamo Bay was established in 1903. The Platt Amendment was abolished in 1934 and the Guantanamo Naval Base agreement was renegotiated granting Cuba and her trading partners free access through the bay, modifying the lease payment from $2,000 in gold coins per year, to the 1934 equivalent value of $4,085 U.S. Treasury Dollars, and adding a requirement that termination of the lease requires the consent of both the U.S. and Cuba governments, or the abandonment of the base property by the U.S.
Cuba in the Early 20th Century
President Gerardo Machado, originally elected by popular vote in 1925, was constitutionally barred from reelection. He decided to stay in power anyway as the head of a military government with some support from the United States. In 1933, a number of liberal Cubans staged an uprising which deposed Machado and led to a series of short-lived governments. As part of the revolutionary process, the Platt Amendment was repealed. Still, American pressure forced Cuba to reaffirm the agreement which was imposed on the country in 1903 which leased the Guantanamo Bay naval base to the United States for a nominal sum, under terms which many Cubans at the time found (and still find) objectionable and colonialistic.
A key figure in the process was Fulgencio Batista, an army sergeant, who originally organized a non-commissioned officer revolt in September 1933. After some time, he decided to become de-facto dictator, wielding significant power behind the scenes until he was elected president in 1940 in an election which many people considered to be rigged. His rule was marked by corruption and violence to opponents. Batista was voted out of office in 1944.
He was succeeded by Dr. Ramón Grau San Martín , a populist physician who had briefly held the presidency in the 1933 revolutionary process. President Grau passed a number of populist measures favoring workers and also was instrumental in passing the 1940 Constitution, which has been widely regarded as one of the most progressive ever written in terms of worker protection and human rights.
Grau was followed by Carlos Prío Socarrás, also elected democratically, but whose government was tainted by increasing corruption and violent incidents among political factions. Eduardo Chibás was the leader of the Ortodoxo Party, a liberal democratic group, who was widely expected to win in 1952 on an anticorruption platform. Chibás committed suicide before he could run for the presidency, and the opposition was left without its major leader.
Taking advantage of the opportunity, Batista, who was running for president in the 1952 elections, but had only a small minority of votes, seized power in a bloodless coup three months before the election was to take place. President Prío did nothing to stop the coup, and was forced to leave the island as a result. Batista suspended the balloting and began ruling by decree.
The Cuban Revolution
Fidel Castro, a young lawyer from a wealthy family, who was running for a seat in the Chamber of Representatives for the Ortodoxo Party, circulated a petition to depose Batista's government on the grounds that it had illegitimately suspended the electoral process. However, the petition was not acted upon by the courts.
On July 26, 1953 Castro led a historical attack on the Moncada Barracks near Santiago de Cuba, but failed and was jailed until 1955, when his powerful family secured a pardon from Batista. Castro subsequently went into exile in Mexico. While in Mexico, he organized the 26th of July Movement with the goal of overthrowing Batista. A group of over 80 men sailed to Cuba on board the yacht "Granma", landing in the eastern part of the island in December 1956. Most of Castro's men were promptly killed or taken prisoner by Batista's forces. Castro managed to escape to the Sierra Maestra mountains with only 12 men, from where, aided by urban and rural opposition, he began a guerrilla campaign against the regime.
The US Department of State writes: "Batista's dictatorial rule fueled increasing popular discontent and the rise of many active urban and rural resistance groups, a fertile political environment for Castro's 26th of July Movement." [1] http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2886.htm The country was soon driven to chaos, particularly by a very effective sabotage and urban warfare campaign conducted in the cities by supporters of Castro.
Faced with a corrupt and ineffective military, dispirited by a U.S. Government embargo on weapons sales to Cuba and public indignation and revulsion at his brutality toward opponents, Batista fled on January 1, 1959. Within months of taking control, Castro moved to consolidate power by marginalizing other resistance figures and imprisoning or executing opponents. As the revolution became more radical, hundreds of thousands of Cubans fled the island.
In July 1961, the Integrated Revolutionary Organizations (ORI) was formed by the merger of Fidel Castro's 26th of July Revolutionary Movement, the People's Socialist Party (the old Communist Party) led by Blas Roca and the Revolutionary Directory March 13th led by Faure Chomón . On March 26, 1962 the ORI became the United Party of the Cuban Socialist Revolution (PURSC) which, in turn, became the Communist Party of Cuba on October 3, 1965 with Castro as First Secretary.
See also: Cuban Revolution
Communist Cuba
Relations between the U.S. and Cuba deteriorated rapidly as the Cuban government, in reaction to the U.S refusal to refine Soviet oil in refineries located in Cuba, expropriated U.S. properties, notably those belonging to the International Telephone and Telegraph Company (ITT) and the United Fruit Company. In the Castro government's first agrarian reform law on May 17, 1959 it sought to limit the size of land holdings, and to distribute that land to agricultural workers in "Vital Minimum" tracts. Before the reform law, 70% of Cuba's farmable land was owned by foreign individuals or foreign companies. In compensation the Cuban government offered to pay the landholders based on the tax assessment values for the land. Actual payment would be with twenty-year bonds paying 4.5% interest (instead of the then U.S. investment grade corporate bond rate of 3.8%). Landholders from most other countries settled on this basis. The problem was with the tax assessed values. Most of the large landholdings had been acquired in the 1920 period when world sugar prices were depressed, and the land could be bought at bargain-basement prices. In the intervening period Cuban governments friendly to these interests had kept these bargain prices as the basis for calculating property taxes, thus insuring that those taxes would be kept low.
In response, the U.S. broke diplomatic relations on January 3, 1961 and imposed the U.S. embargo against Cuba on February 3 1962. (The embargo is still in effect as of 2004, although some humanitarian trade in food and medicines is now allowed.) However, the embargo does not extend to other countries. Cuba trades freely with most European, Asian and Latin American countries. One major exception to the embargo was made on November 6, 1965 when Cuba and the United States formally agreed to start an airlift for Cubans who wanted to go to the United States. By 1971 these so-called Freedom Flights took 250,000 Cubans to the United States.
Bay of Pigs Invasion
Main article: Bay of Pigs Invasion
The United States then sponsored an unsuccessful attack on Cuba, using conservative political groups as the main source of support. The attack began on April 15, 1961, when exiles, flying planes provided by the U.S. bombed several Cuban air force bases. This attack did not succeed in destroying all of Castro's air force. In response, Castro declared Cuba a socialist state in a speech on April 16, 1961.
On April 17, 1961, a force of about 1,500 Cuban exiles, financed and trained by the CIA, landed in the south at the Bay of Pigs. The CIA's assumption was that the invasion would spark a popular rising against Castro. Castro's forces were forewarned of the invasion and had arrested thousands of suspected subversives before the invasion landed. There was no popular uprising. In hindsight it seems unlikely that one would have occurred even had Castro not conducted the arrests. What part of the invasion force that made it ashore was quickly defeated as President Kennedy was unwilling to offer overt US military support, the only possibility to make the invasion successful for the USA. Many believe that the invasion, instead of weakening Castro, actually helped him consolidate his grip on power.
For the next 30 years, Castro pursued closer relations with the Soviet Union until the demise of the USSR in 1991.
The Organization of American States suspended Cuba's membership in the body on January 22, 1962 and the United States Government banned all US-related Cuban imports and exports a couple weeks later on February 7. The Kennedy administration extended this on February 8, 1963 making travel, financial and commercial transactions by US citizens to Cuba illegal.
The Cuban Missile Crisis
Main article: Cuban missile crisis
Tensions between the two governments peaked again during the October 1962 Cuban missile crisis, when the U.S. blockaded Cuba to force the USSR to withdraw their newly-installed MRBMs from the country. The USSR agreed to remove the missiles in exchange for an agreement that the United States would not invade Cuba. The U.S. has honored this agreement, although the CIA continued to support anti-Castro groups by mounting an extensive international campaign and several botched assassination attempts throughout the 1960s.
Castro's military provided support to revolutionary regimes in Angola and Nigeria and to guerrilla groups in South America. During one such campaign, Ernesto Che Guevara, who has become a symbol of revolution in the world, was captured by U.S.-trained commandos in Bolivia in 1967 and then executed. In the late 1970s, Cuban forces defeated the stronger South African army in a major battle in Angola.
Cuba after the Soviet Union
When the USSR's support was lost, Cuba's economy was essentially paralyzed, and living conditions in Cuba worsened. This led Castro to open the country to tourism from Europe and Asia, and to enter into several joint ventures with foreign companies for hotel, agricultural and industrial projects. As a result, the use of U.S. dollars was legalized in the late 1990s, with special stores being opened which only sell in dollars. This created a social split in the island. with persons with access to dollars living much better than those without such access. However, in October 2004 the Cuban government announced an end to this policy: from November dollars would no longer be legal tender in Cuba, but would instead be exchanged for pesos, with a 10% commission payable to the state.
Some non-violent initiatives have been launched by Cubans in the island, aiming at political reform. In 1997, a group led by Vladimiro Roca , a decorated veteran of the Angolan war and the son of the founder of the Cuban Communist Party, sent a petition, entitled La Patria es de Todos ("the homeland belongs to all") to the Cuban general assembly requesting democratic and human rights reforms. As a result, Roca and his three associates were sentenced to jail, from which they were eventually released.
In 2001, a group backed by the powerful Catholic church collected thousands of signatures for the Varela Project, a petition requesting a referendum on the island's political system. The process was openly supported by former U.S. president Jimmy Carter during his historic 2002 visit to Cuba. In response, Castro backers formally proclaimed that Castro's brand of socialism would be perpetual.
In 2003 seventy-five anti-government activists were arrested and summarily sentenced to heavy jail terms. Cuban officials described it as a response to provocative actions by the head of the US interests section in Cuba, who had been travelling around the country holding publicized meetings and press conferences with the dissidents. Castro's action was widely criticised by mainstream human rights organizations and even by American leftists generally sympathetic to his government.
In an unrelated matter six men were sentenced to death for hijacking a ferry with guns and knives, steering it into international waters where it ran out of fuel, and threatening to kill the passengers. Some accounts confused the two and accused Castro of sentencing dissidents to death, something which did not happen. A second ferry was hijacked, several days later and this time the hijackers were apprehended and executed within 24 hours of capture.
See also: Cuba, Spanish colonization of the Americas
External Links
- CubaFacts.com - History http://www.cubafacts.com/History/hisover.htm of Cuba from Hatuey to Castro (Slight anti-Castro bias)
- History of Cuba http://www.historyofcuba.com/main/hstintro.htm Timeline (Slight anti-American bias)
Last updated: 02-07-2005 15:09:44
Last updated: 05-03-2005 17:50:55
