Online Encyclopedia
Homosexuality in China
The situation of homosexuality in China is currently quite ambiguous, although many instances have been recorded in the dynastic histories. In this article, "China" means the Chinese region, including People's Republic of China, Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan (Republic of China).
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Terminology in Chinese
Nowadays, tongzhi (同志) is used as slang in Mandarin Chinese referring to homosexuals, while in Cantonese gei1(基), adopted from English gay, is used. This is sometimes considered to be offensive when used by heterosexuals or even by homosexuals in certain situation. Tongzhi literally means "comrade", but is simply a head-rhyme with tongxinglian (同性戀), a formal word for "homosexuality/homosexual(s)" (literally same-sex relations/love). Another slang term is boli (玻璃, pinyin: bōlí, crystal or glass) which is not so commonly used.
Traditional views towards homosexuality in China's society
All major religions in ancient China do have some sort of codex which have traditionally been interpreted as being against homosexuality. For example the Confucians has the codex that a man should behave according to somewhat traditional male gender roles and a woman likewise. So, for example, transvestism is a deed that is against the Confucian natural law.
There were some historical accounts of emperors who used to dress themselves in women's clothes, and this was always interpreted as an ill omen; to get children (especially sons) is a very important duty for a man in traditional Chinese society. So a man who only has male lovers is not dutiful. Taoism emphasizes maintaining the balance between Yin and Yang. A man-man relation is thought to be a Yang-Yang relation and so is imbalanced and destructive.
In Buddhism sexual desire (regardless of being homosexual or heterosexual) is something that prevents a soul from achieving nirvana. So it is something to be avoided.
But on the other hand, none of the Chinese major religions condemn homosexuality as a sin as many Christian churches do. Comparing to the sin in the Christian culture, the sin deeds in the codex of Confucianism do not include homosexuality. As long as a man does his duty and sires children, it is his private thing to have other male lovers.
This is also true in Taoism. Although each man is regarded as yang (masculine), every man somehow has some yin (feminine) in him too. Some men can have much yin in them. So the presence of some feminine behavior is not viewed as unnatural for men. In this view, homosexuals can even be regarded as something very natural, according to the natural balance of yin and yang. It is also remarkable that many Taoist gods and goddesses live alone or together with some equal deities of the same sex. The very common example is Shanshen (Mountain god) and Tudi (the earth god). Every place has its Shanshen and Tudi, and they always live together. Shanshen and Tudi are both males. More intriguingly, they sometimes manifest themselves as an old man and an old woman. (Such appearances are described quite often in the classical novel Journey to the West).
Another remarkable thing is the prominence of friendship between men in the ancient Chinese culture. This is surely not because homosexuals were celebrated. It was more a reflection of discrimination against women. But this pronunciation created an atmosphere that supported friendships or even relationships among men as something normal. There are many examples in the classic novels, especially in Water Margin, a book about very deep and long lasting male friendships. In the novel Dream of the Red Chamber, there were also some examples of homosexual relations.
Ancient China
Homosexuality has been acknowledged in China since ancient times. According the scholar Ji Yun of the Qing Dynasty, already at the very beginning Huang Di, legendary king and founder of the Chinese culture, had male lovers. This is naturally not very trustworthy because whether there was really a person called Huang Di is not very clear. Two notable royal examples come from a formulaic expression, yútáo duànxiù (余桃断袖). Yútáo, or "the leftover peach", recorded in Hanfeizi , speaks of Mi Zixia (彌子瑕), a beautiful man cherished by Duke Ling of Wei (衛靈公) who once shared an already bitten but very delicious peach with the duke, who appreciated the gesture (although once the aging Mi Zixia lost his beauty, the duke looked back on this event and said Mi was being insincere.) Duànxiù, or "breaking the sleeve", refers to Emperor Ai of Han China's act of cutting his sleeve, on which his adored male concubine Dongxian (董賢) was sleeping, in order not to wake him.
Scholar Pan Guangdan (潘光旦) came to the conclusion that nearly every emperor in the Han Dynasty had one or more male sex partners. There are also descriptions of lesbians in some history books. It is believed homosexuality was popular in the Song, Ming and Qing dynasties. Chinese homosexuals did not experience high-profile persecution comparing with that was received by homosexuals in Europe during the Middle Ages.
In the year 1944, a scholar named Sun Cizhou published a work stated that one of the most famous ancient Chinese poets, Qu Yuan, was a lover of his King. Sun cited the poetry of Qu Yuan to prove his claim. In Qu Yuan's most important work Li Sao (Sorrow of parting), Qu Yuan called himself a beautiful man (or woman, mei ren). A word he used to describe his king was used at that time by women to characterize their lovers.
The first law against homosexuals in China went into effect in 1740. There was no record in the history as to how effectively the law was enforced. The more devastating thing for Chinese homosexuals was, ironically, the enlightenment that came after the Self-Strengthening Movement, when homophobia was imported to China along with Western science and philosophy.
Modern China
Homosexuality went underground after the formation of the People's Republic of China. Confucian morality and communist puritanism both frowned on homosexuality. The communist regime persecuted homosexuals, especially during the Cultural Revolution, when many gays were subject to public humiliation, assault, long prison terms, or execution. Societal tolerance towards homosexuality decreased. Since the policy of Reform and Opening Up in 1979, the communist party has been loosening its control over this kind of behavior. But the practice of homosexuality is still libeled as a "moldering life style of capitalism".
A notable change occurred during the late 1990s and early 2000s, when sodomy was decriminalized in 1997, and the new Chinese Classification and Diagnostic Criteria of Mental Disorders removed homosexuality from its list of mental illnesses on April 20, 2001. The situation has continued to evolve in 2004. Many consider the magazine "Menbox" [1] to be a gay magazine in all but name. Recently, a transsexual woman, Chen Lili was allowed to compete in the China selection pageant for the Miss Universe competition.
An internet survey in 2000 showed that Chinese people are becoming more tolerant towards homosexuality: among the 10,792 surveyed, 48.15% were in favor, 30.9% disapproved, 14.46% were uncertain, and 7.26% were indifferent. There are no radical conservatives or radical liberation activists, so gay-bashing is rare. But some scholars complain that the government is too indifferent on this issue, doing nothing to promote the situation of homosexuality in China. During the 2002 Gay Games, only 2 persons from the mainland were sent to take part in, and apart from gay websites the media gave little coverage to the event. Many gay men admit having unsafe sex, and more than one sex partner, which worsens the spread of AIDS in China, because the Chinese government makes little effort to educate citizens about the danger of AIDS among gay people. The authorities still refuse to promote either gay issues or gay rights in China. Although there is no explicit law against homosexuality or same-sex acts between consenting adults, neither are there laws protecting gays from discrimination, nor are there any gay rights organizations in the PRC. It is believed that the Chinese policy towards the gay issue remains the "Three nos": no approval, no disapproval, and no promotion (不支持, 不反对, 不提倡).
The accurate number of homosexuals remains unclear. From one source, the number has reached between 360,000 and 480,000, another statement based on Chinese government documents and academic studies states the figure is 15 million. Camparing to the proportion of the homosexuals in other countries, some people think these figures are not much convinced.
The loosening of restrictions on Internet use has resulted in a blossoming of gay websites in the PRC, even though the police sometimes intervene and shut down such websites. The Internet has been very important to the Chinese gay community. Although there are no gay organisations in China, there are some very good organized internet sites that do function as advisory institutions.
The mainstream media sometimes cover notable gay events abroad, such as pride parades. But some critics charge that the purpose of the media is mostly to smear homosexuality. Lacking a film rating system, the Chinese government forbids gay movies to be shown on TV or in theaters because they are "inappropriate". Despite having received much attention in Taiwan, Hong Kong and other places, the movie Lan Yu is still forbidden in the PRC because it refers to gay issues although the actors are all Mainlanders, and the story is based on a quite popular Internet story written by a mainland netizen.
There are some gay bars and nightclubs in big cities, like Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, which are subject to police harassment. The difficulties surrounding homosexuality in China make those gays who cannot afford to go to gay bars or nightclubs look for casual sex in public washrooms, parks, and public shower centers. As everywhere in the world, being gay is a huge problem in the countryside; in China this is especially severe as the vast majority of people lives in the countryside with no internet access and no possibility to move to a city.
Many cases show that gays still have to endure prejudice from the justice system and harassment from police, including detention and arrest. In October 2000, a Beijing court ruled that homosexuality was "abnormal and unacceptable to the Chinese public" [Washington Post 24 Jan. 2000], which was the first time this official attitude was stated openly. Another notable case happened in July 2001, when at least 37 gay men were detained in Guangdong Province. Recently, In the late April, the State Administration of Radio Film and Television (国家广播电影电视总局) has initialed a campaign to clear violence and sexual content from the media. Programs related to homosexual topic, scene or language are considered to be "going against the healthy way of life in China", and are banned. [2] [3]
Same-sex marriage in China
During the evaluation of the amendment of the marriage law in China in 2003, there was the first discussion about homosexual marriage. Though this issue was rejected, this was the first time that an item of gay rights was discussed in China. However, just not long before the new marriage law went into effect, an officer stated in a press conference that same-sex marriage is still forbidden in China, on August 19, 2003.
Li Yinhe (李銀河), a well-known sexology scholar among Chinese gay community, has tried to legalize same-sex marriage during the National People's Congress in 2000 and 2004 (Legalization for the Chinese Same-Sex Marriage,《中国同性婚姻合法化》 in 2000 and Chinese Same-Sex Marriage Bill, 《中国同性婚姻提案》in 2004). According to Chinese law, 35 delegates' signatures are needed to make an issue a bill to be discussed in the Congress. Her effort failed due to her not being able to get enough supports from the delegates. Still, many scholars and homosexuals don't think it's possible for China to pass such a law in a short future.
Hong Kong
Male homosexual behaviour was illegal before 1991 in Hong Kong, the maximum sentence being life imprisonment. The Legislative Council agreed to decriminalize buggery after the public debate which arose in 1980. But two other attempts of introducing anti-discrimination legislation failed in 1993 and 1997.
There are several gay-rights organizations in Hong Kong, such as Rainbow Action and Tongzhi Culture Society . In 2003, the Catholic Church of Hong Kong released an article condemning same-sex marriage. As a result, a group of protestors rushed into a church and interrupted the service.
Taiwan
The status of homosexuals has been developing in Taiwan. In 1970s, some novels regarding homosexuality were published. One of the most prominent writer is Pai Hsien-yung, who created many gay characters in his novels, and the most famous one is Crystal Boys. Nowadays, some gay TV series and movies have been made and gained great attention among gay community in both China and Taiwan, including the TV series Crystal Boys, adapted for the same name novel written by Pai Hsien-yung, movie Formula 17 etc.
Taiwanese Homosexual History
Taiwan is an immigrant society. In the 17th century, while the Chinese people immgranted into Taiwan, the Qing government had a strict limit that only few female may tide over the Taiwan Strait to Taiwan Island. This limitation resulted in sexual unbalance of Taiwan society then. People called those who had same-sex relation as "Lo Han Jiao"(羅漢腳).
Nearby Taiwanese Homosexual News/Events
- At the end of October 2003, the government of the Republic of China announced plans to legalize same-sex marriage, which would make Taiwan the first place in Asia permitting it. However, legalization of same-sex marriage is only a plan. There is no any schedule for the legalization.
- On November 1, 2003 the first gay pride parade in the Chinese region was held in Taipei, with over 1,000 people attending [4], and the mayor of Taipei, Ma Ying-jeou also attended this parade. Still, many participants wore masks to hide their identities because homosexuality remains a taboo in Taiwan.
- On January 17, 2004 Taipei police arrested 93 gay people because of their attendance at an orgy party with drugs. The society was shocked that there were nearly one-third of the attenders are HIV positive. This action of arrestment caused severe condemnation from tongzhi community. This event is called "HOMEPA(Home Party) Event" by the Taiwanese gay community now.
Culture
People
The following people are some prominent Chinese people who have come out to the public or been doing effort to improve the gay-rights in China
- Leslie Cheung (gay singer and actor from Hong Kong)
- Pai Hsien-yung (gay writer from Taiwan)
- Li Yinhe (the well known scholar on sexology in China)
Movies and TV series
Many gay movies or TV series have been made in China, Hong Kong and Taiwan, including:
- Bishonen (HK)
- Buffering , (HK)
- Crystal Boys (Taiwan)
- East Palace West Palace (China)
- Formula 17 (Taiwan)
- Happy Together (HK)
- I Am Not What You Want (HK)
- Lanyu (China)
- The Wedding Banquet (Taiwan)
See also
External links
- CSSSM (Chinese Society for the Study of Sexual Minorities)
- Manifesto of 1996 Chinese Tongzhi Conference
- A piece of news about tongzhi in Hong Kong
- Chinese Tradition of Male Love
- Male Love Art from Ancient China
- Gay rights in 90s China:Paper Presented at the Human Rights Forum on People's Summit on APEC, November, 1997
- Home&Bar: The most popular gay bar in Shanghai
Books
- Bret Hinsch, Passions of the Cut Sleeve: The Male Homosexual Tradition in China, The University of California Press, 1990, ISBN 0-520-06720-7.