The 19th century was perhaps the most literary of all centuries, because not only were the forms of novel, short story and magazine serial all in existence side-by-side with theatre and opera, but since film, radio and television did not yet exist, the popularity of the written word and its direct enactment were at their height.

The early part of the century

The romantic movement was well under way and along with it developed the splintering of fiction writing into genres and the rise of speculative fiction. There was a romantic tendency toward the exploration of folk traditions and old legends. In 1802 Sir Walter Scott published Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border. Amelia Opie, another romantic, was publishing poetry in the early 19th century and was an active anti-war campaigner. Anne Bannerman (1765-1829) reworked legends of King Arthur and Merlin. William Blake worked in words and pictures to share his visions and mysticism. In 1807 Thomas Moore published Irish Melodies. Lord Byron produced many influential poems during this period. In 1808 Goethe published part one of Faust. In 1810 Sir Walter Scott published Lady of the Lake. Percy Shelley published a gothic novel: Zastrozzi. The term "Gothic" had, by this time, come to mean a desire for a romantic return to the times before the renaissance. Percy Shelley also published a gothic novella: St. Irvyne in 1811.

North Americans who would later produce great literature were being born in the first third of the century. In 1803 the great American poet Ralph Waldo Emerson was born (May 25) in Boston and in 1804 Nathaniel Hawthorne. In 1807 Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and then Edgar Allan Poe in 1809. Phillipe-Ignace Francois Aubert du Gaspe , author of the first French Canadian novel was born in 1814 followed by Henry David Thoreau in 1817 and Herman Melville in 1819. Canadian poets Octave Crémazie and James McIntyre were both born in 1827. In 1830 was the birth of Emily Dickinson and, just over a third of the way through the century, in 1835 Samuel Clemens (Mark Twain) arrived in this world. Before all of them was Washington Irving, said to be the first American "Literary Lion" and mentor to several other American writers. Washington Irving wrote "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" (a short story by contained in his collection The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon ) while he was living in Birmingham, England and it was first published in 1819.

In 1807 Charles and Mary Lamb published Tales from Shakespeare , a simple retelling of some of Shakespeare's plays in the form of little stories accessible to a child readership. Along with all the other genres born in the 19th century came the genre of Children's literature.

In 1809 Schlegel published On Dramatic Art and Literature. Alfred, Lord Tennyson was born (August 6).

In 1811 Jane Austen published (anonymously) Sense and Sensibility

In 1812 George Crabbe published Tales in Verse. Byron published Childe Harold's Pilgrimage Cantos I and II. Coleridge published Remorse. On February 7th Charles Dickens was born. On May 7 Robert Browning was born in London. On October 4, in London, Percy Shelley first met William Godwin (3 March 1756 - 7 April 1836), an English writer, husband of feminist writer Mary Wollstonecraft and father of Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin (who would eventually marry Shelley and become Mary Shelley).

In 1813 Jane Austen published (anonymously) Pride and Prejudice. Byron published The Giaour and The Bride of Abydos. January 23 Drury Lane reopened with Coleridge's Remorse. In May Percy Shelley published his poem Queen Mab. In September Sir Walter Scott declined the offer of being made Poet Laureate, Robert Southey accepted the post. Wilhelm Richard Wagner born 22 May.

In 1814 Sir Walter Scott published Waverley. Jane Austen's Mansfield Park was published anonymously. Robert Southey published Roderick, the Last of the Goths. An English translation of Dante's Divine Comedy appeared. On July 28 Percy Shelley and Mary Godwin (Mary Shelley) eloped. In 1814 Jane Austen published Mansfield Park and, in 1815, Emma.

In 1816 Thomas Love Peacock published Headlong Hall . Coleridge published Christabel and Kubla Khan. Jane Austen anonymously published Emma. E.T.A. Hoffmann published Undine. Mary Shelley and Percy Shelley went to Geneva and met Byron (with his physician John Polidori). At Byron's villa they told ghost stories and invented the basic ideas which led eventually to Mary Shelley's book Frankenstein and Polidori's vampire novel. Their stay at Byron's villa was one of the most famous events in the Gothic/Romantic movement.

In 1817 John Keats published a volume of Poems. Sir Walter Scott published Harold the Dauntless . Byron published Manfred.

In 1818 Mary Shelley anonymously published Frankenstein which came to be known, eventually, as the first science fiction novel and the template for the mad scientist subgenre. Byron published Childe Harold Canto IV. John Keats published Endymion. Thomas Love Peacock published Rhododaphne and Nightmare Abbey. Jane Austen's Northanger Abbey and Persuasion were published posthumously. Sir Walter Scott published Rob Roy.

In 1819 John William Polidori published The Vampyre.

In 1820 Keats published Lamia, Isabella and Hyperion. Percy Shelley published Prometheus Unbound. Elizabeth Barrett published The Battle of Marathon. Sir Walter Scott published Ivanhoe, The Abbott and The Monastery. James Catnach : Street Ballads. A gothic novel, Melmoth the Wanderer was published by Charles Robert Maturin.

In 1821 February 23: John Keats died. Percy Shelley published Adonais: An Elegy on the Death of John Keats and Epipsychidion. Byron published The Prophecy of Dante. Sir Walter Scott published Kenilworth. Fyodor Dostoevsky was born.

In 1822 Thomas De Quincey published Confessions of an English Opium Eater . P. B. Shelley published Hellas.

In 1823 Mary Shelley published Valperga. Byron published The Age of Bronze and The Island. Charles Lamb published Essays of Elia . Sir Walter Scott published Quentin Durward. An English translation of Jacob Grimm, Grimms' Fairy Tales appeared.

In 1824 Sir Walter Scott published Redgauntlet . Byron died in Greece.

In 1826 Mary Shelley published The Last Man, a novel set in the 21st century.

In 1827 Alfred and Charles Tennyson published Poems by Two Brothers. August 12: William Blake died.

In 1828 Leo Nikolayevitch Tolstoy was born 9 September.

In 1829 Karl Wilhelm Friedrich von Schlegel died 11 January. Edgar Allen Poe published a poem: Al Aaraaf.

In 1831 Sir Walter Scott published Castle Dangerous. Edgar Allen Poe published a poem: The City in the Sea. (1831)

In 1832 Percy Shelley published his poem The Mask of Anarchy , a reaction to the Peterloo massacre. Johann Wolfgang Goethe published part II of Faust. On March 20 Goethe died. Jerrold Douglas published The Factory Girl, The Golden Calf and The Rent-Day.

In 1833 Caroline Bowles published Tales of the Factories. Charles Lamb published The Last Essays of Elia.

In 1834 Frederick Marryat published Peter Simple and Jacob Faithful . Balzac published Le Pere Goriot. William Morris was born. On July 25th Samuel Taylor Coleridge died.

The first modern Arabic compilation of The Book of One Thousand and One Nights was published in Cairo.

The middle of the century

In the mid-nineteenth century magazines publishing short stories and serials began to be popular. Some of them were more respectable, while others were referred to by the derogatory name of penny dreadfuls. In 1844 Alexandre Dumas published a novel The Three Musketeers (Les Trois Mousquetaires) and wrote The Count of Monte Cristo which was published in installments over the next two years. William Makepeace Thackeray published The Luck of Barry Lyndon. In Britain Charles Dickens published several of his books in installments in magazines: The Pickwick Papers, followed, in the next few years, by Oliver Twist (1837-1839), Nicholas Nickleby (1838-1839), The Old Curiosity Shop (1840-1841), Barnaby Rudge (1841), A Christmas Carol (1843) and Martin Chuzzlewit (1843-1844). In America a version of the penny dreadful became popularly known as a dime novel. In the dime novels the reputations of gunfighters and other wild west heroes or villains were created or exaggerated. The western genre came into existence. James Fenimore Cooper began a series of stories featuring the characters Hawkeye and Chingachgook. These stories were not only "westerns" but also historical novels, the earliest setting being approximately 100 years earlier than the year James Fenimore Cooper was writing it. The series was called the Leatherstocking Tales and comprised five volumes: The Deerslayer (1841), The Last of the Mohicans (1826), The Pathfinder (1840), The Pioneers (1823)), The Prairie (1827).

In 1837 Edgar Allen Poe published a poem: The Conqueror Worm.

In 1838 Edgar Allen Poe published a short story: Ligeia and a novel: The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket. Elizabeth Barrett published The Seraphim. Lady Charlotte Guest published Mabinogion, a collection of ancient Celtic stories from Wales.

In 1839 the Canadian writer Louis Fréchette was born. Edgar Allen Poe published three short stories: William Wilson, The Devil in the Belfry and The Fall of the House of Usher.

In 1840 the west country author Thomas Hardy was born.

In 1841 Phillipe-Ignace Francois Aubert du Gaspe died. Edgar Allen Poe published two short stories: A Descent into the Maelstrom and an Auguste Dupin short story: The Murders in the Rue Morgue.

Edgar Allen Poe published a short story: The Masque of the Red Death (1842). Edgar Allen Poe published a short story: The Pit and the Pendulum (1842).

In 1843 the transatlantic author Henry James was born. Edgar Allen Poe published a poem: Lenore and four short stories: The Gold Bug (1843), The Black Cat, The Tell-Tale Heart and an Auguste Dupin short story: The Mystery of Marie Roget .

Edgar Allen Poe published a short story: The Spectacles (1844). Edgar Allen Poe published a short story: The Balloon-Hoax (1844). Edgar Allen Poe published an Auguste Dupin short story: The Purloined Letter (1844).

In 1845 Edgar Allen Poe published a poem: The Raven and a short story: The Facts in the Case of M. Valdemar Wilhelm von Schlegel died 12 May.

In 1846 Edgar Allen Poe published a short story: The Cask of Amontillado. Charles Dickens published Dombey and Son in installments from 1846 to 1848.

In 1846 Elizabeth Barrett married Robert Browning. Charlotte, Emily, and Anne Brontë published Poems by Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell. Edward Lear published his Book of Nonsense .

In 1847 Anne Brontë published Agnes Grey, Emily Brontë published Wuthering Heights and Charlotte Brontë published Jane Eyre. Rymer published Varney the Vampire; or, the Feast of Blood. Edgar Allen Poe published a poem: Ulalume.

In 1848 William Makepeace Thackeray's novel, Vanity Fair was published. Elizabeth Gaskell published Mary Barton. Anne Brontë published The Tenant of Wildfell Hall. Grant Allen was born. Edgar Allen Poe published a poem: Eureka.

In 1849 both Anne Brontë and Edgar Allen Poe died. In the year of his death two of Poe's poems were published: Annabel Lee and The Bells . Dostoyevski published Netochka Nezvanova. The poet Emma Lazarus was born 22 July in New York City.

In 1850 Alfred Lord Tennyson became Poet Laureate and Robert Louis Stevenson was born 13 November. Two of Edgar Allen Poe's short stories were posthumously published: The Oblong Box and The Oval Portrait.

In 1851 Le Fanu published Ghost Stories and Tales of Mystery, Herman Melville published Moby Dick and James Fenimore Cooper died 14 September.

In 1854 Oscar Wilde was born 16 October.

Charles Dickens' prolific creative outpouring gave us David Copperfield (1849-1850) and then Bleak House (1852-1853), Hard Times (1854), Little Dorrit (1855-1857), A Tale of Two Cities (11 July 1859) and Great Expectations (1860-1861).

In 1859 Washington Irving died. Dostoyevski published The Village of Stepanchikovo (or The Friend of the Family). Arthur Conan Doyle was born 22 May.

1860 Anton Pavlovich Chekhov (Анто́н Па́влович Че́хов) was born 29 January.

In 1861Robert Goldsmith died. Bliss Carman was born. E. Pauline Johnson was born.

In 1862 Victor Hugo published Les Misérables. Henry David Thoreau died. Edith Wharton was born. Dostoyevski published The House of the Dead and A Nasty Story . Christina Rossetti published Goblin Market and Other Poems (1862).

The late 19th century

In 1863 Jules Verne published Cinq semaines en ballon (Five Weeks in a Balloon ). (Verne's Paris au XXe siècle (Paris in the 20th Century was written, but was not published until 1994). Voyage au centre de la Terre (Journey to the Center of the Earth) came out in 1864 and De la Terre à la Lune (From the Earth to the Moon) in 1865. Verne had by then fully established the "scientific romance" as a genre. Charles Dickens published Our Mutual Friend in installments from 1864 to 1865. Literature by this time was becoming increasingly popular. The European and North American middle-classes were better educated than ever before and more reading was done. At the same time the styles of writing were tending more and more toward plainer language and more broadly understood themes. People were reading about detectives, ghosts, machines, wonders, adventures, tricky situations, unusual turns of fate and romances. Love stories and grudges, explorations and wars, ideas based on scientific positivism and ideas based on nonsense and gibberish were all being published and enjoyed by a readership which could now be termed "the masses".

In 1864 Nathaniel Hawthorne died. Dostoyevski published Notes from Underground (or Letters from the Underworld). Dostoyevski's concerns and style were singularly original and allow the reader entry to a claustrophobic interior world of the psyche. It is probably correct to describe Dostoyevski as the first Existentialist author.

In 1865 Lewis Carroll published Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, combining social satire with nonsense writing and presenting the two of them in the guise of a children's story. Thomas Chandler Haliburton died. Edith Maude Eaton was born.

1866 Dostoyevski published Crime and Punishment, followed by The Gambler (1867). Mark Twain published The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County.

Jules Verne published Les enfants du Capitaine Grant (In Search of the Castaways) 1867-1868 and Vingt Mille Lieues sous les mers (20,000 Leagues Under the Seas ) in 1870.

In 1868 Dostoyevski published The Idiot.

In 1869 Mark Twain published Innocents Abroad. Matthew Arnold set a cultural agenda in his book Culture and Anarchy. His views represented one of two polar opposites which would be in struggle against each other for many years to come. The other side of the struggle would be represented by the Aesthetic, Symbolist or Decadent movement. The chief participants in the cultural opposition at this time included, on the so-called decadent side French poets like Jean Moréas, Paul Verlaine, Tristan Corbière, Arthur Rimbaud, Charles Pierre Baudelaire, Stéphane Mallarmé and, in Britain, the Irish writer Oscar Wilde. On the other side were Matthew Arnold, John Ruskin and the tendency amongst the arts toward a utilitarian, constructive and educational ethic. The views of Matthew Arnold and John Ruskin inspired the Arts and Crafts movement and William Morris. This dispute (art for art's sake versus art for the common good) would continue throughout the remainder of the 19th century and much of the 20th.

The Decadent movement was a transitional stage between romanticism and modernism.

In 1870 Charles Dickens died aged 58. Before his death he was working on The Mystery of Edwin Drood (published unfinished). John McCrae was born. Hilaire Belloc was born (27 July).

In 1872 Dostoyevski published The Possessed (or Demons or The Devils). Lewis Carroll published Through the Looking-Glass and what Alice Found There. Samuel Butler published Erewhon, an early science fiction novel. Jules Verne published Le tour du monde en quatre-vingt jours (Around the World in Eighty Days).

In 1873 Alfred Jarry was born (8 September).

In 1874 Jules Verne published L'île mystérieuse (Mysterious Island).

In 1875 Carmen, a French opera by Georges Bizet, with text by Meilhac and Halévy , reached the stage. Dostoyevski published The Raw Youth (or The Adolescent).

In 1876 Lewis Carroll published The Hunting of the Snark. Mark Twain published The Adventures of Tom Sawyer.

In 1878 Gilbert and Sullivan's operetta HMS Pinafore, or, The Lass That Loved a Sailor was staged.

In 1879 Octave Crémazie died. Gilbert and Sullivan's operetta The Pirates of Penzance, or, The Slave of Duty was staged.

In 1880 Dostoyevski published The Brothers Karamazov.

In 1881 Dostoyevski died. Oscar Wilde published his first book of poems . Gilbert and Sullivan's operetta Patience, or, Bunthorne's Bride was staged. Mark Twain published The Prince and the Pauper.

In 1882 Gilbert and Sullivan's operetta Iolanthe, or, The Peer and the Peri was staged. Ralph Waldo Emerson died. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow died. Two of America's finest poets gone in one year.

In 1883 Wilhelm Richard Wagner died 13 February. Franz Kafka was born 3 July.

In1884 Mark Twain published The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.

Gilbert and Sullivan's operettas Princess Ida, or, Castle Adamant (1884) and The Mikado, or, The Town of Titipu (1885) arrive on the London stage.

In 1885 H. Rider Haggard published King Solomon's Mines.

In 1886 Emily Dickinson died.

In 1887 Oscar Wilde published The Canterville Ghost. Gilbert and Sullivan's operetta Ruddigore, or, The Witch's Curse was staged. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle published A Study in Scarlet, the first Sherlock Holmes story and the beginning of crime fiction as a genre. H. Rider Haggard published She first serialized in The Graphic from October 1886 to January 1887 .

In 1888 Oscar Wilde published The Happy Prince and Other Stories. Gilbert and Sullivan's operetta The Yeomen of the Guard, or, The Merryman and his Maid was staged.

Gilbert and Sullivan's operettas The Gondoliers, or, The King of Barataria (1889), Utopia, Limited, or, The Flowers of Progress (1893) and The Grand Duke, or, The Statutory Duel (1896) were all staged.

Lewis Carroll's last novel, the two-volume Sylvie and Bruno, was published in 1889 and 1893 respectively. In 1889 Oscar Wilde published The Portrait of Mr. W. H. .

In 1890 Sir Arthur Conan Doyle published The Sign of Four. H. Rider Haggard published The Saga of Eric Brighteyes an epic viking novel. Oscar Wilde published The Picture of Dorian Gray.

In 1891 Herman Melville died. Oscar Wilde published Lord Arthur Saville’s Crime and other Stories , Intentions and House of Pomegranates .

In 1892 Sir Arthur Conan Doyle published The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes.

In 1893 Oscar Wilde staged two plays: Salomé (French version) and Lady Windermere's Fan. His A Woman of No Importance and the English version of Salomé followed in 1894.

In 1894 Sir Arthur Conan Doyle published The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes. Robert Louis Stevenson died 3 December. Mark Twain published Tom Sawyer Abroad and Pudd'n'head Wilson.

Oscar Wilde was in prison for "gross indecency" from 1895 to 1897.

In 1896 Giacomo Puccini's opera La Bohème was staged, as was Chekov's play The Seagull. H.G. Wells published The Time Machine and The Island of Dr. Moreau. William Morris died 3 October. Mark Twain published Tom Sawyer Detective . Alfred Jarry, only 23 years old, wrote his highly influential play Ubu Roi, which is often cited as a forerunner to the theatre of the absurd.

In 1897 Bram Stoker published Dracula. H.G. Wells published The Invisible Man.

In 1898 Henry James published The Turn of the Screw. H.G. Wells publishes The War of the Worlds. Oscar Wilde published The Ballad of Reading Gaol.

In 1899 Chekov's play Uncle Vanya was staged. Mark Twain published A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court. H.G. Wells published When The Sleeper Wakes . Grant Allen died. Oscar Wilde staged his plays The Importance of Being Earnest and An Ideal Husband one year before his death in 1900.

When the Nineteenth century ended the genres of horror, ghost stories, westerns, children's literature, crime fiction, science fiction, historical novels and fantasy had all been established.

See main article: Modern European Literature

Modernism

Modernist poetry

Modernist poetry is a mode of writing characterised by technical innovation in the mode of versification (sometimes referred to as free verse) and by the dislocation of the 'I' of the poet as a means of subverting the notion of an unproblematic poetic 'self' directly addressing an equally unproblematic ideal reader or audience. In English, it is generally considered to have emerged in the early years of the 20th century.

These two facets of modernist poetry are intimately connected with each other. The dislocation of the authorial presence is achieved through the application of such techniques as collage, found poetry, visual poetry, the juxtaposition of apparently unconnected materials, etc. In the best examples of modernist writing, these techniques are used not for their own sake but to open up questions in the mind of the reader.

Modernist poetry in English is often viewed as an American phenomenon in origin, with leading exponents including Ezra Pound, Marianne Moore, William Carlos Williams, H.D., and Louis Zukofsky, but there were a number of important British modernist poets, including David Jones, Hugh MacDiarmid, Mina Loy, and Basil Bunting.

The influence of modernism can be seen in such later poetic groups and movements as the Objectivists, the Beat generation, the Black Mountain poets, the deep image group, the L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E poets and the British Poetry Revival.

Modernist prose

The Modernist form of prose began from the styles of writing popular in the mid to late 19th century: The nonsense books of Edward Lear and Lewis Carroll were one influence. Another was the dark gothic brooding of Mary Shelley, Bram Stoker, Edgar Allen Poe and Dostoyevski. These tendencies toward rebellious nonsense and morose introspection were, to some extent, reactions against the science and positivism of the Victorian mindset. At the same time, however, science continued to influence writers to adopt a spirit of experimentalism.

In 1902 Joseph Conrad published Heart of Darkness, which threw representations of civilised society into sharp contrast with representations of the jungle and played both of them in relation to the human heart and soul.

See main article: Modernism See also: western canon See also: List of years in literature:

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