Cao Cao (155 – 220) was a regional warlord who rose to great power during the last years of Eastern Han Dynasty. One of the central figures of the Three Kingdoms period, he laid down foundations for what was to become the Kingdom of Wei and was throned posthumously as Emperor Wu . Although generally remembered as a cruel and suspicious character, Cao Cao was also a brilliant ruler, military strategist and poet.
Life
Early life
Cao Cao was born in the county of Qiao (present day Bozhou, Anhui). His father Cao Song (曹嵩), originally surnamed Xiahou (夏侯), was a foster son of Cao Teng (曹腾), one of the favorite eunuchs of Emperor Huan.
When he was young, Cao Cao already showed traits of his craftiness. However, he spent most of his time hunting and indulging in music, about which his uncle had complained a multiple times to Cao Song. One day, Cao Cao feigned a fit before his uncle, who hurriedly informed Cao Song. Cao Song rushed out to see his son, who was by then back to normal. When asked, Cao Cao replied, "I have never had such illness, but I lost the love of my uncle, and therefore he had deceived you." Henceforth, Cao Song ceased to believe the words of his brother regarding Cao Cao, and Cao Cao became even more blatant in his wayward pursuits.
At that time, there was a man living in Runan (汝南) named Xu Shao (许劭) who was famed for his ability to identify hidden talents of others. Cao Cao went to see him. Under persistent questioning, Xu Shao finally said, "You would be a capable minister in peaceful times, and an unscrupulous hero in chaotic ones." Cao Cao heard this and was very pleased.
At twenty, Cao Cao was recommended to be a district captain of Luoyang. Upon taking up post, Cao Cao placed rows of multicolored staffs outside his office and ordered his deputies to flog those who violated the law, regardless of their status. An uncle of Jian Shuo (蹇硕), an influential eunuch under Emperor Ling, was once caught walking in the city beyond the curfew hour by Cao Cao and given his fair share of flogging.
In early 180s, the Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out. Cao Cao was promoted to a captain of the cavalry (骑都尉) and sent to Yingchuan (颖川) to put down the uprising. He successfully did so and was further promoted to governor of Dongjun (东郡).
Alliance against Dong Zhuo
In 190, Emperor Ling died and was succeeded by his eldest son, though it was the empress dowager who administered the official matters. The two most powerful generals of that time, He Jin and Yuan Shao, plotted to eliminate the clan of influential eunuchs. He Jin then summoned Dong Zhuo, governor of Western Liang, to lead his troops into Luoyang to lay pressure on the empress dowager. Before Dong Zhuo arrived, however, He Jin was assassinated by the eunuchs and the capital fell into chaos. After his force ridded the palace ground of opposition, Dong Zhuo deposed the emperor and placed in the throne Emperor Xian.
Not seeing eye to eye with Dong Zhuo, Cao Cao left Luoyang for Chenliu (陈留, southeast of present day Kaifeng, Henan) in 189, where he raised his own troops. The next year, regional warlords combined their forces under Yuan Shao against Dong Zhuo. Cao Cao joined their cause. When Dong Zhuo was eventually killed in 192 by his own foster son, Lü Bu, China fell into civil war. Through short-term and regional-scale wars, Cao Cao continued to expand his power.
In 196, Cao Cao received Emperor Xian into his own custody in Xuchang. Henceafter, the last emperor of the Han Dynasty remained a figurehead in the hands of Cao Cao. Cao Cao was then instated as the General-in-Chief (大将军) and Marquis of Wuping (武平侯), though both titles practically meant little.
In 200, Yuan Shao amassed more than 100,000 troops and marched southwards on Xuchang. Cao Cao then gathered 20,000 men in Guandu (官渡), a strategic point on the shore of the Yellow River. With his craft and a few brilliant military maneuvers, not to mention the help of a defector from Yuan Shao's camp, Cao Cao won a decisive and seemingly impossible victory.
Yuan Shao fell ill and died shortly after returning from the defeat, leaving his legacy to two sons – Yuan Tan and Yuan Shang (袁尚). In the ensuing northern campaigns, Cao Cao successively defeated both of them, who were at loggerheads themselves. Henceforth Cao Cao assumed effective rule of the entire northern China. He extended his control past the Great Wall into northern Korea, and southward to the Han River.
However, Cao Cao's attempt to extend his domination south of the Yangtze River was dashed as his forces were defeated by the first coalition of his archrivals Liu Bei and Sun Quan (who later founded the kingdoms of Shu and Wu respectively) at the Red Cliffs in 208.
The three kingdoms
In 213, Cao Cao was titled Duke of Wei (魏公) and given ten cities under his domain, known as the State of Wei. In 216, Cao Cao was promoted to King of Wei (魏王). Over the years, Cao Cao as well as Liu Bei and Sun Quan continued to consolidate their power. China slowly came to be divided by only three powers – Wei, Shu and Wu, which fought sporadic battles among themselves without the balance tipping significantly in anyone's favor.
In 220, Cao Cao passed away in Luoyang at the age of 66, without realizing his ambition to unify China. His will instructed that he be buried in everyday clothes and without burial artifacts, and that his subjects on duty at the frontier to stay in their posts and not attend the funeral as, in his own words, "the country is still unstable". His eldest surviving son Cao Pi succeeded him. Within one year, Cao Pi forced Emperor Xian to abdicate and proclaimed himself as the first emperor of the Wei Dynasty. Cao Cao was then throned posthumously as Emperor Wu .
Major battles
Battle of Yanzhou
In 193, China fell into a state of full-fledged civil war. Meanwhile, remnants of the Yellow Turban rebels were still plaguing the country. A wandering throng of the rebels from Qingzhou numbering a million invaded Yanzhou (兖州). Bao Xin (鲍信), a subject of Yanzhou governor Liu Dai (刘岱), advised the latter to fortify the city and wait for the enemies to disperse. Liu Dai refused and was subsequently killed in battle.
Bao Xin then offered Cao Cao the governor's seat in exchange for his help. In the initial encounter, Cao Cao suffered minor losses but eventually subdued the rebel force. He also took in more than 300,000 surrendered troops under his own flag. This force, come to be known as the Qingzhou Army, was to be an important foundation for Cao Cao's subsequent rise in power.
Battle of Guandu
In the spring of 200, Yuan Shao, the most powerful warlord of that time, amassed more than 100,000 troops and marched from Ye on Xuchang. To defend against the invasion, Cao Cao placed 20,000 men at Guandu , a strategic landing point on the shore of the Yellow River which Yuan Shao's troops had to secure en route Xuchang.
With a few diversion tactics, Cao Cao managed to disorientate Yuan Shao's troops as well as kill two of Yuan Shao's most capable generals. The morale of Yuan Shao's troops suffered a further blow when Cao Cao struck a stealth attack on the former's food store. Many more of Yuan Shao's men surrendered or deserted than were killed during the ensuing battle. When Yuan Shao eventually retreated back to Ye in the winter of 201, he did so with little more than 800 horsemen.
The Battle of Guandu turned the table around in northern China. Yuan Shao died shortly after his return and his two sons were soon defeated by Cao Cao. Henceforth, Cao Cao's dominance in the entire northern China had never been challenged. The battle has also been studied by military strategists ever since as a classic example of winning against an enemy with far superior strength.
Battle of Red Cliffs
The Battle of Red Cliffs was another classic battle where the side vastly outnumbered emerged as the victor. In this battle, however, Cao Cao was on the losing end.
In the winter of 207, Liu Bei and Sun Quan – two warlords who later founded the kingdoms of Shu and Wu respectively – formed their first coalition against the southward expansion of Cao Cao. The two sides clashed at the Red Cliffs (northwest of present day Puqi , Hubei). Cao Cao boasted around 830,000 men, while the Liu-Sun coalition at best had 50,000 troops.
However, Cao Cao's men, mostly from the north, were ill-suited to the southern climate and naval warfare, and thus entered the battle with a clear disadvantage. Furthermore, a plague that broke out undermined the strength of Cao Cao's army. The tactic by Zhuge Liang and Zhou Yu, military advisors to Liu and Sun, to use fire also worked effectively against Cao Cao's vessels, which were chained together. A majority of Cao Cao's 830,000 troops were either burnt to death or drowned. Those who tried to retreat to the near bank were ambushed and annihilated by enemy skirmishers. Cao Cao himself barely escaped the encounter.
Other contributions
Agriculture and education
While waging military campaigns against his enemies, Cao Cao did not forget the basis of society – agriculture and education.
In 194, a locust plague caused a major famine across China. According to the Chronicle of the Three Kingdoms, the people ate each other out of desperation. Without food, many armies were defeated even without fighting. From this experience, Cao Cao saw the importance of an ample food supply to building a strong military. He then began a series of agricultural programs in cities such as Xuchang and Chenliu . Refugees were recruited and given wastelands to cultivate. Later, encampments not faced with imminent danger of war were also made to farm. This system was continued and spread to all regions under Cao Cao as his realm expanded. Although Cao Cao's primary intention was to build a powerful army, the agricultural program undeniably improved the living standards of the people, especially the war refugees.
By 203, Cao Cao had eliminated most of Yuan Shao's force. This afforded him more attention on the constructional works within his realm. In autumn, Cao Cao passed down an order decreeing the promotion of education across the states and cities within his jurisdiction. An official in charge of education matters was assigned to each county with at least 500 households. Youngsters with potential and talents were selected to undergo schooling. This prevented a lapse in the output of intellectuals in those warring years and, in Cao Cao's words, would benefit the people.
Poetry
Cao Cao was also an established poet. Although not many of his works remain today, his verses, unpretentious and philosophical, could be said to have reshaped the poetry style of his time. One of his most celebrated poems, written in the late years of his life, is Though the Tortoise Lives Long (龟虽寿).
Though the Tortoise Lives Long
《龟虽寿》
Though the tortoise blessed with magic powers lives long,
Its days have their allotted span;
神龟虽寿，犹有竟时。
Though winged serpents ride high on the mist,
They turn to dust and ashes at the last;
腾蛇乘雾，终为土灰。
An old war-horse may be stabled,
Yet still it longs to gallop a thousand li;
老骥伏枥，志在千里。
And a noble-hearted man though advanced in years
Never abandons his proud aspirations.
烈士暮年，壮心不已。
Man's span of life, whether long or short,
Depends not on Heaven alone;
盈缩之年，不但在天。
One who eats well and keeps cheerful
Can live to a great old age.
养怡之福，可得永年。
And so, with joy in my heart,
I hum this song.
幸甚至哉，歌以咏志。
Cao Cao in Romance of the Three Kingdoms
The Romance of the Three Kingdoms, a historical novel by Luo Guanzhong, was a romancization of the events that occurred during the Three Kingdoms period. While staying true to history most of the time, the Romance of the Three Kingdoms inevitably gave Cao Cao a certain degree of dramatic make-up, in such a tone so as to suggest him as a cruel and suspicious character. On several occasions, Luo Guanzhong even made up fictional or semi-fictional events involving Cao Cao. These include:
Escape from Dong Zhuo
While in reality Cao Cao did leave Dong Zhuo, the tyrannical warlord who held the last Han emperor hostage, in 190 to form his own army, the Romance of the Three Kingdoms went a step further to describe Cao Cao's attempted assassination of the latter.
Since Dong Zhuo deposed the eldest son of the late Emperor Ling and placed in the throne Emperor Xian, his tyrannical behavior had angered many court officials. One of the officials, Wang Yun, held a banquet one night. Halfway through the banquet, Wang Yun began to cry at the cruel deeds of Dong Zhuo. His colleagues, feeling the same anguish, joined him.
Cao Cao, however, laughed and said, "All the officials of the court – crying from dusk till dawn and dawn till dusk – could you cry Dong Zhuo to his death?" He then borrowed from Wang Yun the Seven Gem Sword with the promise that he would personally assassinate Dong Zhuo.
The next day, Cao Cao brought the precious sword along to see Dong Zhuo. Having much trust in Cao Cao, Dong Zhuo received the guest in his bedroom. Lü Bu, Dong Zhuo's foster son, left the room for the stable to select a fast horse for Cao Cao, who complained about his slow ride.
When Dong Zhuo faced away, Cao Cao readied to unsheath the sword. However, Dong Zhuo saw the movement in the mirror and hastily turned to question his intention. At this time, Lü Bu had also returned. In his desperation, Cao Cao knelt and pretended that he wanted to present the sword to Dong Zhuo. He then rode away with the excuse of trying out the new horse, and headed straight out of the capital before Dong Zhuo, who grew heavily suspcious, could capture him.
Discussion of "heroes"
In 199, Lü Bu attacked Xiaopei (小沛), forcing Liu Bei to flee to Xuchang and seek refuge under Cao Cao. Cao Cao treated Liu Bei well, even conferring him the title of Yuzhou Governor (豫州牧) and hence the rightful ownership of Xiaopei. However, the Romance of the Three Kingdoms gave Liu Bei's stay in Xuchang a little twist.
To prevent Cao Cao from seeing through his ambitions, Liu Bei devoted himself to growing vegetables in his backyard. One day, Cao Cao summoned Liu Bei to his residence for a drink. While drinking, cumulous clouds began to gather on the horizon. Cao Cao pointed to a piece that resembled a dragon and compared dragons to heroes. Liu Bei was then asked who the heroes living among them were.
After making some vain guesses, Liu Bei gave up the attempt. Cao Cao, pointing at his guest and then himself, said, "The only heroes in this world are you and I." Hearing this, Liu Bei gasped, dropping his spoon and chopsticks. Just at that moment there came a tremendous peal of thunder. Liu Bei quickly attributed his shock to the thunder, and thus successfully hid his ambitions and curbed Cao Cao's suspicion for a while.
Escape through Huarong Trail
After the fire started burning at the Red Cliffs, Cao Cao gathered all the men he could and escaped towards Jiangling, taking the shortcut through Huarong Trail. On top of the huge defeat and humiliation Cao Cao suffered, Luo Guanzhong decided to add one more pinch of salt to the getaway.
During his perilous escape back to Jiangling, Cao Cao came to a fork in the road. Columns of smoke were seen rising from the narrower path. Cao Cao judged that the smoke was a trick by the enemy to divert him to the main road, where an ambush must have been laid. He then led his men towards the narrow path – the Huarong Trail.
The smoke was indeed a trick by Zhuge Liang, military advisor to Liu Bei. Grasping Cao Cao's psychology exactly, however, Zhuge Liang actually meant to direct him to Huarong Trail, where Guan Yu with 500 troops sat waiting. Upon being cut off, Cao Cao rode forward and pled Guan Yu remember kindness of the former days. Seeing the plight of the defeated men and recalling the former favors he received from Cao Cao, Guan Yu then allowed the enemy to pass through without challenge, risking his own life for disobeying miliary orders.
Death of Cao Cao and Hua Tuo
In 220, Cao Cao passed away in Luoyang due to an unrecorded illness. Legends had many explanations for the cause of his death, most of which were wrought with superstitions. The Romance of the Three Kingdoms included some of these legends, as well as Luo Guanzhong's own story about the involvement of Hua Tuo, a renowned Chinese physician.
When Cao Cao started complaining about splitting headaches during the last days of his life, his subjects recommended Hua Tuo, a physician whose skills were said to parallel the deities. Upon examination, Hua Tuo diagnosed Cao Cao's illness to be a type of rheumatism within the skull. He suggested giving Cao Cao a dose of hashish and then splitting open his skull with a sharp axe to extract the pus within.
Being heavily suspicious of others, Cao Cao believed Hua Tuo intended to kill him. He then threw Hua Tuo into jail, where the renowned physician died a few days later. Without proper treatment, Cao Cao soon died as well.
Cao Cao in opera
While historical records indicate Cao Cao as a brilliant ruler, he was represented as a cunning and deceitful man in Chinese opera, where the character of Cao Cao is given a white facial makeup to reflect his treacherous personality. When writing the Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Luo Guanzhong took much of his inspiration from the opera. As a result, such unscrupulous depiction of Cao Cao had become much more popular among the common people than the real Cao Cao himself.
Reference
- Luo Guanzhong (1986). San Guo Yan Yi. Yue Lu Shu She. ISBN 7-80520-013-0.
- Lo Kuan-chung; tr. C.H. Brewitt-Taylor (2002). Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0-8048-3467-9.
See also
External link
Last updated: 05-14-2005 18:15:19
Last updated: 05-13-2005 07:56:04
