Belligerent military occupation, occurs when one nation's military garrisons occupy all or part of a foreign nation during an invasion (during or after a war).

Contents

1 Military occupation and the laws of war 2 Examples of military occupations 2.1 Significant contemporary belligerent military occupations 2.2 Disputed occupations 2.2.1 Disputed to be a military occupation by local population 2.2.2 Disputed to be a military occupation by nation of dominant military forces in area 2.2.3 Other 3 Further reading 4 External links 5 Reference

Military occupation and the laws of war

There have long been customary laws of belligerent occupation as part of the laws of war which gave some protection to the population under the military occupation of a belligerent power. These were clarified and supplemented by the Hague Conventions of 1907. Specifically "Laws and Customs of War on Land" (Hague IV); October 18, 1907: "Section III Military Authority over the territory of the hostile State"[1]. The first two articles of that section state:

Art. 42.

Territory is considered occupied when it is actually placed under the authority of the hostile army.

The occupation extends only to the territory where such authority has been established and can be exercised.

Art. 43.

The authority of the legitimate power having in fact passed into the hands of the occupant, the latter shall take all the measures in his power to restore, and ensure, as far as possible, public order and safety, while respecting, unless absolutely prevented, the laws in force in the country.

In 1949 these laws governing belligerent occupation of enemy territory were further extended by the adoption of the Fourth Geneva Convention (GCIV). Much of GCIV is relevent to protected persons in occupied territories and is a specific section covering the issue.

Article 6 restricts the length of time that most of GCIV applies:

The present Convention shall apply from the outset of any conflict or occupation mentioned in Article 2.

In the territory of Parties to the conflict, the application of the present Convention shall cease on the general close of military operations.

In the case of occupied territory, the application of the present Convention shall cease one year after the general close of military operations; however, the Occupying Power shall be bound, for the duration of the occupation, to the extent that such Power exercises the functions of government in such territory, by the provisions of the following Articles of the present Convention: 1 to 12, 27, 29 to 34, 47, 49, 51, 52, 53, 59, 61 to 77, 143.

Protocol I (1977): "Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts" has additional articles which cover military occupation but it should be noted that many countries including the U.S. are not signatory to this additional protocol.

Examples of military occupations

see also List of military occupations.

In most wars some territory is placed under the authority of the hostile army. Most military occupations end with the cessation of hostilities. In some cases the occupied territory is returned and in others the land remains under the control of the occupying power but usually not as militarily occupied territory.

Significant contemporary belligerent military occupations

• Western Sahara — by Morocco
• Papua — annexed by Indonesia since 1961

Disputed occupations

Some presences are often referred to as military occupations, but their status as an military occupation are often disputed when not every party in the situation agrees that it is even a military occupation at all.

Disputed to be a military occupation by local population

• Israel (1949 Armistice lines) — unrecognized by parts of the Arab world, though recognized by Egypt, Jordan and most of the Maghreb
• Lebanon — by Syria since 1979 (disputed by some pro-Syrian populations)
• Northern Cyprus — garrisoned by Turkey, claimed by Greek Cyprus
• Transnistria — part of Moldova, occupied by Russia

Disputed to be a military occupation by nation of dominant military forces in area

• Chechnya — claimed by Russia
• East Turkistan — annexed by China (claimed as historically China)
• The West Bank and Gaza Strip — by Israel since 1967 (see Israeli-Palestinian conflict)
• Golan Heights and East Jerusalem — annexed by Israel
• Inner Mongolia — annexed by China (claimed as historically China)
• Lower Kuril Islands: Kunashir/Kunashiri, Iturup/Etorofu, Shikotan, Habomai — annexed by Russia (who considers the matter non-negotiable)
• Tibet — annexed by China since 1951 (claimed as historically China)
• Iraq — by the United States and some allies (see U.S.-led occupation of Iraq)

Other

• North Korea and South Korea — see Korean Conflict
• Kashmir — held in part by Pakistan and China, claimed by India.

Further reading

• David Kretzmer, Occupation of Justice: The Supreme Court of Israel and the Occupied Territories, State University of New York Press, April, 2002, trade paperback, 262 pages, ISBN 0791453383; hardcover, July, 2002, ISBN 0791453375

External links

• Belligerent Occupation
• The International Laws of Belligerent Occupation by Professor Francis Boyle (Point of view hostile to Israel)
• The Law of Belligerent Occupation Michal N. Schmitt (regarding occupation of Iraq)
• Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States and Military Occupation under the Law of War by Richard W. Hartzell

Reference

Adapted from the Wikinfo article, "Belligerent occupation" [2]