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Austro-Hungarian Empire

With the war having turned decisively against the Central Powers, the peoples of the Austro-Hungarian Empire lost faith in it, and even before the armistice in November radical nationalism had already lead to several declarations of independence in September and October 1918. With victory, the allied powers also decided to break up the empire, in accordance with Woodrow Wilson's 14 points. Throughout most of the war the Allies had hoped to maintain Austria-Hungary as a counterbalance to German power in central Europe, and had interpreted the 14 points within the framework of a federal Austria-Hungary. However, due to lobbying by seperatists from various regions of the Empire, such as Czechs and Serbians, the Allied powers slowly bagan to recognise the nationalities as distinct entities.

The resolution of borders and governments in south-central Europe in the time after November 1918 was not easy. As the central government had ceased to operate vast areas found themselves without governments and many new groups attempted to fill the void. During this same period the population was facing food shortages and was for the most part demoralized by the losses incurred during the war. Various political parties, ranging from ardent nationalists, to social-democrats, to communists attempted to set up governments in the names of the different nationalities. In other areas existing nation states such as Romania occupied regions that they considered to be theirs. These moves created de-facto governments that complicated life for diplomats, idealists, and the western allies.

The western allies were officially supposed to occupy the old Empire but rarely had enough troops to do so effectively. They had to deal with local authorities who usually had their own agenda to fulfill. At the peace conference in Paris the diplomats had to reconcile these authorities with the competing demands of the nationalists who had turned to them for help during the war, the strategic or political desires of the Western allies themselves, and other agendas such as a desire to implement the spirit of the 14 points.

For example, in order to live up to the ideal of self determination laid out in the 14 points, Germans, whether Austrian or German should be able to decide their own future and government. However, the French especially were concerned that an expanded Germany would be a huge security risk. Further complicating the situation delegations such as the Czechs and Slovenians had strong claims on some German-speaking territories.

The result were treaties that compromised many ideals, offended many allies, and set up an entirely new order in the area. Many people hoped that the new nation states would allow for a new era of prosperity and peace in the region, free from the bitter quarelling between nationalities that had marked the preceding fifty years. However, this hope turned out to be far too optimistic.

Changes in territorial configuration after World War I:

The new republics of Austria and Hungary were established, disavowing any continuity with the empire and exiling the Habsburg family in perpetuity.

The new Hungary was stripped of two thirds of its traditional lands, though it didn't lose most areas where the Magyars were in a majority. The new republic of Austria maintained control over most of the mostly German-dominated areas, but lost various other lands.

Bohemia, Moravia, Czech Silesia, Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia formed the new Czechoslovakia.

Galicia was transferred to Poland.

The South Tyrol and Trieste went to Italy.

Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, Slovenia, and Vojvodina were joined with Serbia and Montenegro to form the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, later Yugoslavia.

Transylvania became part of Romania.

These changes were recognised in, but not caused by, the Treaty of Versailles. They were subsequently further elaborated in the treaty of Saint-Germain and the treaty of Trianon.

Because of the intermixed population and partly because of the interests of great powers, the new borders did not always follow ethnic divisions. The new states of eastern Europe nearly all had large national minorities. Hundreds of thousands of Germans found themselves in the newly created countries as minorities. A quarter of ethnic Hungarians found themselves living outside of Hungary. Many of these national minorities found themselves in bad situations because the modern governments were intent on defining the national character of the countries, often at the expense of the other nationalities.

The interwar years were hard for the Jews of the region. Most nationalists distrusted them because they were not fully integrated into 'national communities.' In contrast to times under the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, Jews were often ostracized and descriminated against. Although anti-semitism had been wide spread in the days of the Habsburg monarchy the Jews faced no official descrimination because they were, for the most part, ardent supporters of the multi-national state and the monarchy. Jews had feared the rise of ardent nationalism and nation states, because they foresaw the difficulties that would arise.

The economic disruption of the war and the end of the Austro-Hungarian customs union created great hardship in many areas. Although many states were set up as democracies after the war, one by one, they reverted to some form of authoritarian rule. Many quarelled amongst themselves but were too weak to compete effectively. Later, when Germany rearmed the nation states of south central Europe were completely unable to resist its attacks and fell under German domination to a much greater extent than had ever existed in Austria-Hungary. After the war the German domination was exchanged for Soviet.

Ottoman Empire

At the end of the war the Ottoman government collapsed completely and the Ottoman Empire was divided amongst the victorious powers in the Treaty of Sèvres.

France and Britain got most of the Middle East, and the British were given the Mandate of Palestine under the League of Nations.

Italy and Greece were given much of Anatolia, however Turkish resistance forced out the Greeks while the Italians were unable to establish themselves. The independent state of Armenia was created in eastern Turkey, however the Red Army invaded in 1920 and the state was annexed.

An autonomous Kurdish area was also created, but attempts to become independent in the 1920s were suppressed by the Turks.

After Turkish resistance led by Atatürk had conquered the Greek, Italian, Armenian, and Kurdish areas (Turkish War of Independence), a new treaty was signed, the Treaty of Lausanne, which formally ended all hostilities and led to the creation of the modern Turkish republic.